Biography
EdwardLeeThorndike(1874-1949)wasborninMassachusetts,USAonAugust31,1874.Hisfatherwasalawyerandlaterbecameapastor.Asachild,hisappearanceisnotgood,heisshyandlonelybynature.Hecanonlyfindfuninhisstudies,andhealsohasaspecialgiftforlearning.Hishighschoolgradeshavealwaysbeeninthetoponeortwo.In1891,hesetfootonWesleyanUniversityinMiddleton,Connecticut,majoringinEnglish.Whenhegraduatedin1895,hereceivedthehighestaveragegradein50years.Inhisautobiography,hewrotethathedidnotremember"heardorsawthewordpsychology"beforehewasinthethirdyearofcollege,andhehadtotakeacompulsorycourseatthattime.AfterreadingWilliamJames'PrinciplesofPsychology,hebecameinterestedinpsychology.HewenttoHarvardtocontinuehispostgraduatework,planningtostudyEnglish,philosophyandpsychology,butafterlisteningtoJames'twoclasses,hewascompletelyfascinatedbythelastone.
In1896,hereceivedanotherbachelorofartsdegreeatHarvard,andamaster'sdegreein1897.AlthoughherespectedJamesverymuch,hechoseatopic"chicken'sintuitionandintellectualbehavior"whichwasveryuncharacteristicofJames.Inlaterlife,hesaidthattheoriginalmotivationwas"mainlytomeettheneedsofobtainingcreditsandgraduationdiplomas...Itwasobviousthattherewasnospecialinterestinanimalsatthetime."Atthattime,Jamesnolongerengagedinexperimentalpsychology,butheagreedtothistopicandprovidedaspaceinhisbasementtoThorndike,whodidnothavealargeenoughlaboratory,foranimalexperiments.
In1898,Thorndikefailedtopursueayoungandbeautifullady(laterThorndikeandthisladyfinallymarried),whenColumbiaUniversityhiredhimasauniversitycouncilorandofferedhimascholarship,Hetooktwoofthebest-trainedchickenstoNewYork,wherehecontinuedtocompletehisPhDinthismoreconvenientplaceforresearch.TheinstructorwasJamesMcGinCartel,whowasconductingresearchonmeasuringintelligencethroughhumantests.AlthoughThorndikealsotookapsychiatrictestlater,inordertocompletehisdoctoralthesis,hehadtocontinuehisownanimallearningresearch.Hecompletedhisfamousresearchonthemazeandobtainedhisdoctorate.ThorndikebecameapsychologylecturerattheTeachersCollegeofColumbiaUniversityin1899.AccordingtoCartel’sadvice,Thorndikeappliedhisanimalresearchtechniquestochildrenandyoungpeople.Afterthat,heusedmoreandmorepeoplefortesting.Object,andspendalotoftimeinhumanlearning,educationalpsychologytestingandotherfields.InadditiontospendingayearasafacultymemberattheUniversityofWesternReserveinCleveland,Ohio,therestofhisfruitfullifewasspentatColumbiaUniversityTeachersCollege.Duringhisacademiccareer,heproducedatotalof507books,monographs,andacademicpapers.Thisrecord-settingachievementmaybecomparabletothatoflaterpsychologistsexceptPiaget..
Thisfruitfullifeendedjustafewweeksbeforehis75thbirthdayonAugust9,1949.
Mainworks
"AnimalWisdom"(1911)
"EducationalPsychology"(threevolumes,1903-1913-1914)
"IntelligenceTest"(1927)
"HumanLearning"(1931)
"ThePsychologyofNeeds,Interests,andAttitudes"(1935)
"HumanityandSocialOrder"(1940)
MainContributions
(1)Thedisciplineofeducationalpsychologywasfounded,whichmadeeducationalpsychologyfrompedagogyandchildpsychologyDifferentiatedfromitandbecomeanindependentsubject.Therefore,Thorndikeisknownasthefounderofeducationalpsychology.
(2)Borrowalotofbiologicalandphysiologicalconceptstoestablishhisassociativepsychology.Mostofhisconclusionsarebasedonpsychologicalexperiments,whichgiveshistheoryastrongobjectivityandcontributestotheresearchofexperimentalpsychology.
(3)Developedclassicalassociativepsychology.Hislearningpsychologyisbasedontheword"connection"throughout,sohecallshimselfa"connectionist".Themaincharacteristicofitsconnectionismistoemphasizetheconnectionbetweensituationandreaction,ratherthantheassociationorconnectionbetweenideas.Therefore,hecombinesacompletelyobjectiveframeofreferencewithhispsychologicaltheory.Thelawoflearningheputforwardisalsodifferentfromtheearlyassociativepsychologistsintermsofformulation.Themainshortcomingsare:Thorndike'slearningtheoryismechanical.Heonlypaysattentiontotheexternalbehaviorofpeople,andinordertostudythisbehavior,hedecomposesitintothesimplestelement,namelythestimulus-responseunit.Butheignoredtheresearchonpsychologicalelementsandconsciousness.
ThereisnodoubtthatThorndikeisoneoftheimportantfiguresinthedevelopmentofpsychology.Althoughmanyofhisopinionsarousepeople'scontroversyandrefutation,hislearningtheoryalwaysoccupiesanimportantpositioninpsychology.Someofhisviews,especiallyhislawofeffect,havealwaysbeenasubjectofdebate,andtherearestillpeoplewhoverifytheeffectofthelawofeffectandtheroleofreinforcement,andareimmersedinmeticulousexperimentalresearch.AlthoughsomenewlearningtheoriesandmodelsappearedafterThorndike,hisresearchmethodsandconclusionsonanimalandhumanlearninghaveanindelibleinfluenceinthehistoryofpsychology.
LearningConnection
BasicPoints
First,inThorndike’slearningviewpoints,therelevantconceptsinthe17thand18thcenturyBritishassociationistphilosophyareretainedCertainelementsofassociationwerealsoinfluencedbyAmericanfunctionalistpsychologyatthetime.Thisismainlymanifestedinhisinterpretationof"situation"and"reaction".Theword"situation"usedbyThorndikeissometimescalled"stimulus",butitsmeaningisnotexactlythesameasthatoftheword"stimulus"usedbybehaviorismlateron.Thorndikebelievesthattheso-calledsituationincludesnotonlythebrain'sexternalenvironmentalstimuli,butalsothe"brainstate",thatis,thoughts,feelings,etc.Similarly,themeaningofreactionnotonlyreferstochangesinthebody'sexternalactivities,butalsoincludes"internalreactions"suchasconceptsandimages.
Secondly,intheexplanationoftheconnectionmechanism,Thorndikestandsentirelyonthestandpointofinstinctism.Hebelievesthatpeoplearebornwithmany"originaltendencies"ofconnection,thatis,whenthespermandeggcombinewithadults,theneuronsinthehumanbrainformmany"originalconnections".Thisis"humannature",whichdeterminesthetrendofacquiredconnection.Therefore,Thorndikebelievesthattheso-calledlearningistoarouseandstrengthenakindofconnectiontendencyinthe"originalconnection"undertheinfluenceofacertainsituation;itdoesnotarouseorweakenotherconnectiontendencies.Inthisway,Thorndike’slearningconnectiontheorycompletelyobliteratesthesubjectiveandactiveroleofpeopleinlearning,andregardslearningasinstinctive,passive,oraprocesscompletelydeterminedbythesituation.
Thirdly,Thorndikebelievesthattheconnectionbetweensituationandresponseisformedorestablishedaccordingtoacertainrulethroughtrialanderror.Thelearningprocessiscompletelyblindortrialanderror.Itfurtherobliteratestheconsciousnessandpurposeoflearning.Thorndikeproposedthreelawsthatformtheconnectionbetweensituationandreaction,namelytheso-calledpreparationlaw,practicelawandeffectlaw.Amongthem,thelawofpracticeandthelawofeffectare"themainlawoflearning".Themeaningofthelawofpreparationisthatwhenasituationisconnectedwithareactionpreparation,givingaconnectionwillcausethelearner'ssatisfaction;conversely,whenasituationisnotreadytoconnectwitharesponse,requestingaconnectionwillcausetrouble.Theearlypracticelawpaidattentiontothefrequenteffectoftheconnection.Itwasbelievedthattheconnectionbetweenacertainsituationandacertainreactionthathadbeenformedwouldstrengthenthepoweroftheconnectionifusedfrequently;ifitwasnotusedfrequently,thepoweroftheconnectionwouldbeweakened.Bytheearly1930s,Thorndikemodifiedthelearninglawheproposed.First,hegaveupthefrequencyfactor.Hebelievedthatrepeatedpracticealonecouldnotstrengthenitsconnection,andonlythecombinationofthepracticelawandtheeffectlawcouldplayarole.Theearlylawofeffectpaysattentiontotheroleofrewardandpunishment.Itisbelievedthatwhenasituationandaresponseareconnectedwithreward,thepowerofconnectionisincreased;ifitisaccompaniedbypunishment,thepowerofconnectionisweakened.Later,Thorndikebelievedthattheeffectofrewardwasbetterthantheeffectofpunishment,andemphasizedtheroleofreward.Thorndikefirstnoticedtheroleofrewardsinreinforcementlearning,whichopenedupawayforlaterin-depthresearchonreinforcementtheory.
HowtoviewandevaluateThorndike’slearningtheory?Firstofall,weshouldseethatThorndikeisthefirstpsychologistintheWesttoengageinexperimentalresearchonanimallearning.Hislearningtheoryisbasedonexperimentalresearch,systematicallyexpoundingthelearningprocess,andproposingaseriesoflearninglawstobecomeTheearliestandmostsystematiclearningtheoryintheWest.Thishashadasignificantimpactonthefurtherdevelopmentofthelaterlearningconnectiontheory.Theseacademichistoricalachievementsshouldbefullyaffirmed.
However,weshouldalsoseethatThorndike’slearningtheoryhasmanyshortcomingsanderrorsinviewpoints.
Defects
First,duetothelimitationsofphilosophicalthinking,Thorndikeignoredthecognitivecharacteristicsoflearning.Heblindlyemphasizedtheconnectionbetweensituationandreaction,simplifyingandmechanizingthecomplicatedlearningprocess.Humanlearningismainlyacomplexcognitiveprocess.Thorndike’slearningconnectiontheorycanonlyexplainsimplemechanicallearningatbest,butcannotexplainhuman’scomplexcognitivelearning.Humanlearningispreciselybasedoncognitiveprocesses.ThismakesThorndike'slearningtheorypaleandweak.
Secondly,becauseThorndikeacceptedtheinstinctualideology,heignoredthepurposeandinitiativeoflearninginhislearningtheory,andregardedthelearningprocessasablindandpassiveprocess..Thisobliteratesthemostprominentfeatureofhumanlearning,thatis,thesubjectivefunctionofhumanlearning.
Third,ThorndikeinsistedonFlorence(P.Flouress,1794-1867)thattheconclusionsdrawnfromanimalexperimentscanalsobeappliedtohumanAnimallearningiscompletelyequivalent.Wedonotdenythatthereisacertaininternalconnectionbetweenanimallearningandhumanlearning,andsomeresearchresultsonanimallearningcanalsobeusedasreferencematerialsforstudyinghumanlearning.However,therearesomeessentialdifferencesbetweenhumanlearningandanimallearninganyway.Humanlearningismuchmorecomplicatedthananimallearning.Itisboundtobeinadequateorone-sidedtoexplainthecomplexlearningofhumansfromtheviewpointofexplainingthesimplelearningofanimals.
AlthoughThorndike’slearningtheoryhassomeshortcomingsanderrors,itstillhasacertainimpactonschoolteachingpractice.Thisismainlymanifestedinthefollowingpoints.
Teachingimpact
ThetrialanderrorphenomenondiscoveredbyThorndikeisauniversalfact,anditisalsoawayorwayforhumanstosolveproblems.Naturally,humantrialanderrorarebynomeansblind,theyareusuallypurposeful.Therefore,inteaching,weshouldaskstudentstousetheknowledgeorexperiencetheyhavelearnedtosolveproblems,insteadoflettingstudentstreatdifficultproblemsblindly.Thorndike’spracticelaw,thatis,mechanicalmemorizationisnotwithouteffectinlearning.Wecannotcompletelydenythecertainroleofmechanicalmemorizationandover-learninginknowledgelearning,especiallythememorizationofsomeforeignwords,historicalyearsandsomemathematicalconstants,whichstillrequirerepeateduseandrepeatedmemorizationtomaintainBetter.Inteaching,wemustuserewardsandpunishmentsrationallyandscientifically.Ofcourse,asThorndikerealizes,theroleofrewardisbetterthantheroleofpunishment.However,theproperuseofpunishmentundercertainconditionswillalsoresultineffectsthatothermethodscannotachieve.
MistyCageExperiment
Thunderkebegantoconductalargenumberofexperimentalstudiesonanimallearningattheendofthe19thcentury.Themostfamousexperimentishowhungrycatslearnhowtoescapefromthelostcage.FoodExperiment(1898).Picture(1)isoneofThorndike’sexperimentalmazedevices.
Thorndikeconfineshungrycatsinacage.Hungrycatscanusethreedifferentactions,suchasgrabbingropesorbuttons,toescapefromthecagetogetfood.Whenthehungrycatwaslockedinthecageforthefirsttime,itbegantoscreamblindly,scratchingandbiting.Afteraperiodoftime,itmighthaveopenedthedoorofthecageandescapedfromthecage.Thorndikere-closedthecatintothecageandrecordedthetimefromthestartoftheexperimenttothetimethecatmadethecorrectactiontoopenthecagedoor.Afterrepeatedexperiments,Thorndikegotalearningcurveforcats.Figure(2)isthelearningcurveoftwocatsinThorndike'sexperiment.Thecurveshowstherelationshipbetweenthelatencyofcatstoescapethemazeandthenumberofexperiments.Thorndikebelievesthatthecatislearning"trialanderror".Aftermanytrialanderror,thehungrycatlearnedtheactionofopeningthecagedoor.Therefore,somepeoplecallthisviewofThorndikethe"trialanderrortheory"oflearning,orsimplythe"trialanderrortheory".
Publishingbooks
Connectionism
AschoolofmodernAmericanpsychology.Itemergedafterfunctionalpsychologyandbeforebehavioralpsychology,atheoryoflearningpsychologyproposedbytheAmericanpsychologistE.L.Thorndikeduringhisexperimentalresearchonanimals."Connection"originallyreferstotheformationofaconnectionorassociationbetweentheexperimentalanimals'impulsetothesituationalfeelingsandreactionactionsinthecage.Thorndikecallsit"connection"inordertodistinguishitfromconceptualassociations.Itisbelievedthatanimalsdonothaveideasandconceptualassociations,butareconnected.Notonlyanimals,butalsopeople.In1911,heproposedin"AnimalWisdom"thattheconnectionformedbyrepeated"trialanderrorandaccidentalsuccess"inanimalsislearning(lawofpractice);asuccessfulactionisprintedintothebodytostrengthentheconnectionandisalsolearning(lawofeffect).A.Payinsaidthatchildrenlearntospeak,andrandommovementsareheldwhentheygetsatisfactoryresultsbyaccident,anddissatisfiedmovementsarestopped;repeatedmanytimes,satisfactorymovementsformintentionalmovements.ZoologistL.MorganonceexplainedanimalbehaviorwithPain'sthoughtofconnection,putforwardtheterm"trialanderror",andimaginedanimalexperiments.ThorndikeusedPaine'stheoryalmostexclusivelyinlearningandpioneeredthemazeexperiment,summarizingthelearningtheoryandconnectionistpsychologysystemwiththe"trialanderror-incidental"methodandtheconceptofconnectionasthecore.In1905,hedeterminedthattheobjectofpsychologywas"mentalbehavior",thebasicunitofwhichwasthesituation(stimulus)ortheconnectionbetweenthementalstateandtheresponseaction.
Therearetwotypesofconnection:instinctandhabitacquisition.Eachtypehasconnectionsbetweenactions,betweenideas,andbetweenactionsandideas.Thesumofallconnectionsisthewholeofmentalbehavior.Itshowsthatthereiscontinuityinthepsychologyofhumansandanimals.Thedifferencebetweenthetwoisonlythecomplexityoftheconnection,whichobliteratesthepsychologicalcharacteristicsofpeople.Thorndikeusesneuralconnectionstoexplainpsychologicalconnections,andbelievesthatthetwocorrespondonetoone.NeuropsychologistD.O.Hebbsupportsthisview,andK.S.Lashleyusedbraindamageexperimentstoprovethatdamagetothebrainareacorrespondingtothepsychologicalconnectionhasacompensatoryeffectinotherareas,anddeniestheconnectionone-to-onecorrespondenceandthetheoryofbrainfunctionpositioning.И.П.PavlovopposedLashley'spointofviewwiththetheoryoftemporaryneuralconnectionsandsupportedThorndike.
Thunderk’sconnectionismisbasedonempiricism,alsoknownasneo-associationism.Hedisagreeswiththerationalistssayingthatheisanatomistandamechanist,juxtaposinghimwiththebehavioristJ.B.Watson,andcallinghimselfafunctionalist.Infact,hewasatransitionalpersonfromfunctionalpsychologytoWatsonbehaviorismandpsychologyafterthepragmaticpsychologyofW.JamesandJ.Dewey.Heappliedconnectionismtolearningtheoryandeducationalpsychology,whichhadagreatinfluenceandarousedmanycriticismsandcontroversies,promptinghimtoproposethe"principleofaffiliation"(meaningconnection)torevisethepracticelawandsupplementtheeffectlawwithrewards.ThenewbehavioristB.F.SkinnercombinedhisrewardandtrialanderrormethodwithPavlov’sreinforcementandconditioning,andputforwardthetheoryofresponsiveconditioningandoperationalconditioning,forminganoperationalistbehaviorism.
LearningTheory
TryandMissay
Thorndikefirstusedexperimentalmethodstostudythelearningpsychologyofanimals.Hecreatedexperimentaltoolssuchaslostcircles,lostboxes,andlostcagestotestthelearningofanimalssuchasfish,chickens,cats,anddogs.Accordingtotheseexperiments,Thorndikebelievesthatanimallearningdoesnothaveinferenceanddeductivethinking,anddoesnothaveanyconceptualeffect.Thewayanimalslearnistrial-and-error,thatis,animalsgainexperiencethroughrepeatedtrialanderror.Theessenceofthiskindoflearningistoformaconnectionbetweenstimulusandresponse,thatis,"inductionknot".Therefore,learningistheformationandconsolidationofconnections.Thorndikeappliesthevariouslawsrevealedfromanimalexperimentalresearchtohumanlearning.Hebelievesthathumanlearningismuchmoreplasticthananimalsandhasmorecomplexbehaviors,butitisalsobasedoninstinctandusestheconnectionofstimulusresponsesasthecriterion.of.Therefore,Thorndikedivideshumanlearningmethodsintofourcategories:(1)Ordinaryanimal-likeformationofconnections,suchas10-month-oldbabieslearningtoplaydrums;(2)Formationofconceptualconnections,suchas2-year-oldchildrenlearningtohearThewordmotherthinksofmother,orthewordsugarwhenthinkingofsugar;(3)analysisorabstraction,forexample,apersonstudyingmusiclearnstoreacttotheovertoneofasound;(4)selectivethinkingorreasoning,Forexample,childrencanlearnthemeaningofaLatinsentencebyapplyingthevariousrulesandthemeaningoftherootofthesyntax.
LawofLearning
Basedontheexperiment,Thorndikeproposedthreelearninglaws:
(1)LawofReadiness.Thislawconsistsofthreecomponents:①Whenaconductionunitisreadytoconduct,conductionwithoutanyinterferencewillcauseasenseofsatisfaction;②Whenaconductionunitisreadytoconduct,itwillcauseasenseoftroubleifitisnotconducted.③Whenaconductionunitisnotpreparedtoconductconduction,forcedconductionwillcauseasenseoftrouble.
Thelawofpreparationisaninternalpsychologicalstateoftheresponder.Allreactionsarejointlydeterminedbytheindividual'sinternalsituationandexternalsituation.Therefore,learningisnotapassiveacceptanceofknowledge,butanactivity.Thelearnermusthaveacertainneed,whichisreflectedininterestanddesire.Inaddition,goodpsychologicalpreparationshouldalsoincludetheliteracyandabilitypreparationnecessarytoreacttothesituation.
(2)LawofExercise.Thislawisdividedintotwosub-laws:①thelawofapplication-aformedvariableconnection,ifapplied,willbecomestronger;②thelawofapraxia-aformedvariableconnection,ifitisnotappliedforalongtime,thenWillbecomeweaker.
Theessenceofthepracticelawistostrengthentheinductionknotofstimulationandresponse.Themorethereactionisusedinthesituation,thestrongertheconnectionbetweenitandthesituation.Onthecontrary,ifthisreactionisnotusedforalongtime,thisconnectiontendstoweaken.Later,Thorndikemodifiedthislawandpointedoutthatsimplyrepetitivepracticeisnotaseffectiveasrewardingtheresultsofthisreaction.
(3)LawofEffect.Thislawemphasizesthattheindividual'sfeelingsabouttheresultofthereactionwilldeterminetheeffectoftheindividual'slearning.Thatis,iftheindividual’sresponsetoacertainsituationformsavariableconnectionfollowedbyastateofsatisfaction,thisconnectionwillbestrengthened;onthecontrary,ifitisaccompaniedbyaboringsituation,thisconnectionwillbeWillweaken.Thorndikefurtherinvestigatedthislawinthe1930sandfoundthatfeelingsatisfiedcanproducestrongerlearningmotivationthanfeelingbored.Therefore,herevisedthelawofeffecttoemphasizerewardsratherthanpunishment.
Inshort,Thorndikeemphasizesthatallconnectionsformedbystimulusandresponsearestrengthenedbyapplicationandsatisfaction,andweakenedbyapraxiaandannoyance.Therefore,educationmustfollowthesetwomainlearninglaws.Teachersshouldunderstandthateffectivelearningmustbebasedonchildren'sstronginterestandjoyinlearning.Inviewofthis,theteachershouldfirsttellthestudentsthefunofthehomework,orarousethechildren’spreparationwiththeirownenthusiasm;theorderofthereactionsshouldbecarefullydefinedandstrictlycontrolled,andthroughcontinuouspractice,thefinalformofthedesiredHabits;payattentiontowhetherstudentsaretiredandboredintheprocessofpractice;payattentiontothedifficultyoflearningcontent,nottomakestudentsfeelverydifficult,whichleadstodiscouragement.
"Thetheoryofcommonelements"
Thetheoryofformaltrainingor"mentaltraining"intraditionaleducationbelievesthatattention,memory,andreasoningarethemostbasicmentalfacultiesofeveryone.Abetterfunctioncanperformagoodfunctioninallsituations.Therefore,itemphasizestheuseofrigorouslyorganizedanddifficulttounderstandclassicalsubjectstotrainstudents'mentalfacultiestopromotetheoveralldevelopmentofstudents'mentalabilities,butignoresthelearningandtrainingofpracticalknowledgeandskills.Thorndikeopposesthisgeneralformofmigrationandadvocatesacommonelementmigration.Hepointedoutthattheoccurrenceoflearningtransferisbynomeanstheresultofanyclassicaldisciplinetraining,becauseareactionestablishedinonesituationcannotbetransferredtoallothersituations.Onlywhenthetwofunctionshavethesamefactors,canthechangeofthisfunctionchangetheotherfunction.Thechangeinthesecondfunctionisequalincomponenttothechangeintheelementsharedbyitsfirstfunction.Forexample,masteringadditioncanimprovethecalculationofmultiplication,becausesomeelementsofadditionandmultiplicationarethesame.Startingfromthe"commonelementtheory"oflearningtransfer,Thorndikeopposesformaldisciplinesandadvocatespracticaldisciplinesthatareclosetotherealityoflife.
Relationshipofthethree
1.Animalsandhumanshavecertaininnateorinheritednatures,whicharetheso-calledinstinctsthatdonotlearn,suchascombativeness,rabble,cruelty,curiosity,construction,andplay.Thorndikeparticularlyemphasizestheinnatenatureofanimalsandhumans,andbelievesthattheseinheritednaturesdeterminethedevelopmentaltendencyofpeople.Hewroteinthefirstvolume:anypersonhascountlessdefinitetendenciesaboutfuturebehavioratthebeginningofhislife,thatis,themomentwhentheeggandspermthatproducedhimcombinewitheachother.Thereisapre-formedknotbetweenhissituationandthereactionhewillhave.Thestructureofthesetwogermcellshaslongestablishedthathewillsee,hear,feelandactinacertainwayundercertaincircumstances.Hisreasonandmoralityarethesameashisbodyorgansandmovements,partlytheconsequenceofthenatureoftheembryoatthebeginningofitslife.
2.Geneticsandenvironmentaffecthumandevelopmenttogether.Thorndikewroteinthefirstvolume:Aperson'slife-longsituationandactionsarethecombinedeffectofthestructurehehadatthebeginningandalltheinfluenceshefeltbeforeandafterhislife.Theformeriscalled"nature"andthelatteriscalledenvironment.Hewroteinthesecondvolume:Allwisdom,character,andtalentsofapersonaretheproductofinnatenatureandtraining.Hecriticizedgeneticdeterministsforemphasizingthedecisiveroleofinnatenature,butignoredtheroleofenvironmentandeducation;whileenvironmentaldeterminists,becauseoftheiremphasisontheimpactoftheenvironment,theyforgotthattheimpactoftheenvironmentonpeopleisbasedonpeople’sinnateness.Itvariesbynature.Hemaintainsthathumanbeingsarecreatedbycircumstances,butthefinalmodelishalfdictatedbynature,race,ancestry,andthecircumstancesatwhichtheywereborn.Circumstanceschangehumannature,butthechangednatureisdifferent,andthechangescannotbeconsistent.Twoprinciplescanbederivedfromthis:
(1)Thesameenvironmentalstimuluswillhavedifferenteffectsondifferentpeople.Forexample,Faraday'sexperienceasanapprenticeinapharmacylaidthefoundationforhislife'scareer,makinghimafamouschemistandphysicistintheUK.Darwinspentaweekatsea,makinghimascientistwhoinventedthetheoryofevolution.Theseareallwellknown.Butifalltheyoungpeoplearesenttopharmaciesasapprentices,andthenallsenttoseaforscientificinvestigations,theresultwillnotbetotrainthemallintoFaradayandDarwin;norwilltheyallbecomeordinarychemists,Physicistandnaturalscientist.
(2)Individualsareselectiveintheirenvironment.Forexample,ifyouhaveabookbutdon'treadit,orreadabook,youcanturnablindeyeandbeabsent-minded.Anotherexampleisthatacertainenvironmentcansatisfyoneperson,likeafishinwater,butdisgusttheotherpersonandtrytorefuseit.Justlikethesurvivalofthefittestanimalsinnature,peoplealsochooseacertainstatefromtheenvironmentbasedontheirownfeelings,thusdictatingtheirownwisdomandcharacter.
3.Theroleofeducationistochangehumannatureandbenefitmankind.Thorndikeemphasizedthathumannatureisthestartingpointofeducation.Heopposesthetheoryofgoodnessandevil,thinkingthatthesearetwoextremeopinions.Theformerregardsthenatureasright,whilethelatterregardsthenatureasallwrongandunreliable.Infact,therearegoodandbadtrendsinnature.Suchasmaternallove,curiosityandcruelty.Theroleofeducationistoguidethegoodtrendsinnatureandeliminatethebadones.Toexplainfromtheconceptofassociativepsychology,thenatureofhumanbeingsistheconnectionorcongruencebetweentheinnatelyformedsituationandreaction.Theseinnateconnectionsortiesarethefoundationandstartingpointofalleducation.Thepurposeofeducationistopermanentlymaintainsomeoftheconnections,eliminatesomeofthem,andchangeorguideothers.
Atthesametime,Thorndikealsoemphasizedtheimpactoftheenvironmentonhumandevelopment.Therefore,hepointedoutthatorganizededucationshouldpayspecialattentiontothefollowingthreepoints:
(1)Inhumannature,thoserelativelyprimitiveandbasiccharacteristics,suchasenergy,ability,endurance,leadership,andcompassionAndloftysentiments,etc.,areallstimulatedbythegreatworld.Ifhumannaturedoesnotreflecttheneedsofthesecharacteristics,andisalwaysreadytorespondtothestimuliitreceives,itisnotenoughtorelysolelyontheexercisesobtainedintheclassroom.(2)Howtoreleaseenergyandhowtousevariousabilitiestoengageinspecializedintellectualandmoralactivitiesarenotdeterminedbyinnatecharacteristics.Natureprovidescapital,andschoolsshouldengageinthisusefulcause.Althoughwecannotcreateintelligence,wecanpreventthetragicwasteofintelligencecausedbythescholasticsystem.Althoughwecannotdoublehumancompassion,wecanmaintainhumancompassionandputanendtothekindofemotionalcharity.
(3)Moralityismoreeasilyaffectedbytheenvironmentthanintelligence,soeducationshouldplayagreaterroleinimpartingmoralknowledgeandcultivatingmoralhabits.
Inshort,inThorndike’sview,humannatureiscreatedbynaturalinstinctandenvironment.Therearegoodandevil.Therealtaskofeducationistocontroltheenvironment,promotegoodandeliminateevilbasedonnaturalinstinct.Changehumannature,soeducationcanmakeahugecontributiontohumanhappiness.
Evaluation
Thunderk’sresearchinterestsareverywide.HeisthemainrepresentativeoftheColumbianschoolintheUnitedStates,andthepioneerofanimalpsychologicalexperiments,educationalpsychologysystemandconnectionistpsychology.ThefounderofXuexue,anddesignedthepsychologicaltest,isoneoftheleadersoftheAmericaneducationaltestingmovement.Becauseofthis,somehistoriansputhimundertheAmericanfunctionalistpsychologyschool,butmanypeoplethinkthatheismorelikeacharacterofthebehavioristschool,buthehimselfthinksthathedoesnotbelongtoanyschool.
WithMaslow
MaslowwasdoinghisdoctoraldissertationattheUniversityofWisconsinduringtheGreatDepressionintheUnitedStates.Theresearchonprimateshasmadegroundbreakingprogress,butbecauseHisJewishbackgroundandhisfuturearenotbright.GardnerMurphy,apsychologistatColumbiaUniversity,lobbiedaroundtogethimaposition,andnearlylosthischair.MaslowfinallybecameascientificassistantatColumbiaUniversity'sInstituteofEducation.AsThorndike’sassistant,hewouldassistThorndikeincompletingthefive-yearhugeresearchprojectof"HumanityandSocialOrder."Maslowknowsthatwhathegotishardtocomeby.Thorndikeistheluckystarinhislife,andThorndikeisfullofconfidenceinhisplanandhopeforhisassistant.
Maslowisapersonwithaveryoutstandingpersonality.Intheprocessofresearch,oncehefindsthathedoesnotlikethewayorcontenttogodeeper,hewillresolutelyabandonit.Histemperamentdecidesthathecan’tsticktoit.Doanyworkyoudon'tlike.Intheexperiment,hebelievesthatThorndike’s"humanityandsocialorder"ismeaninglesstohim.Maslowbelievesthatallhumanactivitiesareamixtureofgeneticandculturalfactors.Inordertoexpresshispointofview,Maslowsubmittedamemotohistutorinanacademicway,sharplyrefutingthewholeconceptof"humannatureandsocialorder".
Thunderkequicklyrespondedtothismemo,andhecalledMaslowtotheoffice.Maslowwasalsoveryworriedaboutbeingfiredatthistime.Hehimselfknowsverywellthatifhelosesthisposition,itwillbedifficulttofindajobduringtheGreatDepression,andbesides,therewillneverbesuchsuperiorscientificresearchconditions.However,Thorndikeisanunusualperson.HefirsttoldMaslowthattheIQtestresultwas195points,whichisanastonishingnumber.ThorndikesaidtothestunnedMaslowthatifhecan'tfindapermanentposition,Thorndikeiswillingtosupporthimfortherestofhislife.ButThorndiketoldMaslowfrankly:"Idon’tlikeyourresearchondominanceandsexualbehavior,andIhopeyoudon’tcontinue.ButifIdon’tevenbelieveintheresultsoftheintelligencetest,thenwhowouldbelieveit?What?SoIthink,youshouldletyouthinkindependently.Inthisway,itwillbethemostsuitableforyou,forme,andevenfortheworld."Finally,ThorndikehandedoverhisofficeanddesktoMaslow,andaskedhimtogotoworkinthefuture,andcometoThorndikeforasalaryeverymonth.SotheconversationbetweenThorndikeandMaslowended.
Historyprovesit."Inthisway,itwillbethemostsuitableforyou,forme,andevenfortheworld."Masloweventuallybecametheworld'sgreatpsychologist.Hismotivationandpersonalitytheoryisagreatcontributiontoworldpsychology.HecreatedHumanisticpsychologyhashadahugeimpactontheentiresocialsciences,theindustry,andawiderangeofculturalfields.AndThorndike,asMaslowfeels,istheblessinginhislife,illuminatingMaslow'sresearchroadwiththelightofgenerosityanddeepunderstanding,thusalsohighlightinghisgreatpersonalitypower.——Itwillbethemostsuitableforyou,forme,andevenfortheworld.
Thisisaharmoniouspersonalityecology,scientificenvironmentalecology.Maslow’sgeniusandpersonality,Thordike’spersonalityandvision,andtheworld’sneedsforgreatthinkersrepresentacompletesystemofsocialecology.Inthissystem,anyindividualfactorwillbecomealinkandchainintheentiresystem,maintainingtheintegrity,stability,beautyandharmonyoftheentiresystem.Inthissense,Thorndikeisnotonlyaluckystarofagreatpsychologist,butalsoasymbolandrepresentativeofacomplete,stableandbeautifulandharmoniouspartofthesocialecosystem.