Originbackground
Somepeoplethinkthattheindustrialrevolutionhadalreadybegunaround1750,butithadnotreallyflourisheduntil1830(theyearofGengYin).MostpeoplebelievethattheIndustrialRevolutionoriginatedincentralEngland.
TheBritishworkerHargreavesinventedtheJennyspinningmachine;attheendofthe18thcenturyandthebeginningofthe19thcentury,BritishWattimprovedthesteamengine,sothebeginningoftheindustrialrevolutionwasmarkedbyHargreaves’inventionofJennySpinningmachine,andthesymboloftheindustrialrevolutionisWatt'simprovedsteamengine.ButthesteamenginewasnotinventedbyWatt,itwasmodifiedbyWatt.Aseriesoftechnologicalrevolutionscausedamajorleapfrommanuallabortopowermachineproduction.ThentheIndustrialRevolutionspreadtoEnglandandthentotheentireEuropeancontinent,andspreadtoNorthAmericainthe19thcentury.Later,theIndustrialRevolutionspreadtoallcountriesintheworld.
Reasonsfortherise
TherootcauseofthefirstindustrialrevolutioninBritain
Traditionalviewsbelievethatthemainreasonfortheindustrialrevolutioninthe18thcenturywasthehandicraftindustryinBritaininthe18thcenturyProductioncannolongermeettheneedsofthemarket,whichputsforwardtechnicalreformrequirementsforthehandicraftindustry.ButwhydidtheIndustrialRevolutiontaketheleadintheUKandnotincontinentalEuropeorAsiancountries?Scholarshaveputforwardmanydifferentpointsofview,themaincontentsareasfollows:
1.Politicalpremise:Britainestablishedaconstitutionalmonarchyearlier,andtheruleofthebourgeoisieinBritainisincreasing;themoreprogressivepoliticalsystemistheUnitedKingdomEconomicdevelopmentprovidedarelativelystabledomesticandinternationalenvironment.Sincethe18thcentury,therehasbeennolarge-scalewarinBritain.
2.Agriculturalprogress:Britainbasicallycompletedtheagriculturalrevolutioninthe17th-18thcenturies.Thespecificmanifestationswere:thepromotionofcroprotation,theadvancementofproductiontools,thecultivationofnewcrops,andtheuseoffertilizers.Throughtheenclosuremovement,thelandlordobtainedalargeamountoflandandimprovedproductionefficiency.Alargenumberoffarmerswholosttheirlandmovedtocitiesandtownsorservedcapitalistagriculture,therebyexpandingthedomesticmarket.ItisworthmentioningthattheBritishserfdomsystemwasbasicallyextinctasearlyasthelateMiddleAges.ThedevelopmentofBritishagriculturalsocietywashinderedbytheremnantsoffeudalismevensmallerthansomecountriesandregionsincontinentalEurope(Spain,Germany).TheincreaseinBritishagriculturalproductionandthedeclineinthepricesofagriculturalproductsmeansthattheBritishcanobtainmorelivingresourcesthroughlowerconsumption.
3.Higherwages:Firstofall,affectedbytheplagueandfamineinthe14thcentury,theBritishpopulationfelltoatroughinthelateMiddleAges.Inthe30yearsuntilthemiddleofthe18thcentury,theBritishpopulationexperiencedalongperiodofslowgrowth,andthelaborforcewasnotabundant.Atthesametime,thebasiccharacteristicsoftheBritishagriculturalsocietyfurtherrestrictedthenumberofmanualworkers.Beforetheestablishmentofthenewpoliticalsystem,eventheemergenceoftheenclosuremovementcouldnotchangetherealityofhighlaborcostsinBritishindustry.ThehighcostoflaborintheUnitedKingdomdeterminesthatthewagesofBritishworkersarehigherthanthoseofcontinentalEuropeancountries.Inthiscase,inordertoincreaseproductivityonalargescaletomeetthemarket,itisimperativetodevelopadvancedproductiontools.Asmentionedabove,affectedbytheagriculturalrevolution,workerscanenjoyalowercostofliving,andthenleadamoredecentandcomfortablelife,anddevotemoreenergytotheresearchanddevelopmentofproductiontechnology.
4.Theexperienceaccumulatedduringmanuallaborinfactoriesandtheprogressofproductiontechnology,duetotheearlyabolitionoftheguildsystemintheUnitedKingdom,thedevelopmentofurbanhandicraftindustryisnotrestrictedbylocalguildforces,andhasmorefreedomenvironment.
5.Thesupportandrewardofthebourgeoisgovernmentforinventionandcreationmobilizedtheenthusiasmoflaborproducersforproductionandinvention,andpromotedtheoccurrenceanddevelopmentoftheindustrialrevolution.
6.ThecommercialrevolutionmadeBritishbusinessmenricher.Atthesametime,Britishcolonialexpansionprovidedahugeoverseasmarketandrichrawmaterialsforindustrialandcommercialdevelopment.Inaddition,theBritishcolonyIndianotonlyhasrichtextileexperience,butalsohasastrongrelationshipwithIndiancottoncloth.CompetitionhasalsobecomeoneofthedrivingforcesfortheBritishtextileindustrytoimproveproductiontools.Inaddition,Britainhastheworld'slargestwarshiptoprotectthesecurityofoverseastradeandmarketorder.
7.TheUnitedKingdomhasabundantcoalresources,andtheenergycostofmachineproductionislowerthanthatofcontinentalEuropeancountries,whichmakestheproductioncostofusingmachineproductioninsteadofmanualproductionlower,whichisconducivetothedevelopmentofadvancedproductiontechnology.Promotion.ThisconditionisalsonotavailableinFrance,whichhasadeeplyentrenchedsmallholdereconomy(lowlaborcostsandhighenergycosts).
8.Withtheincreaseinmarketdemand,manualproductioninworkshopscannolongermeetthedemand,andthereisanurgentneedforproductioninlargefactories.
So,amachineproductionrevolutionwillinevitablybreakout.
Itisgenerallybelievedthatsteamengines,coal,andsteelarethethreemainfactorsthatcontributedtotheaccelerateddevelopmentofindustrialrevolutiontechnology.Theindustrialrevolutionstartedwithlightindustryanddevelopedintoothersectors.BeforeWattimprovedthesteamengine,theentireproductionpowerreliedonhumanandanimalpower.Withtheinventionandimprovementofthesteamengine,factoriesarenolongerbuiltonriversorstreams.Manytasksthatwerepreviouslyreliantonmanpowerandmanualworkhavebeenreplacedbymechanizedproductionsincetheinventionofthesteamengine.Theindustrialrevolutionisahugechangethatisincomparabletothegeneralpoliticalrevolution.Itsimpactinvolvesallaspectsofhumansociallife.Ithascausedhugechangesinhumansociety.IthasplayedanirreplaceableroleinpromotingthemodernizationprocessofmankindandpushedmankindtoThenew"steamage".
Inaddition,duringthevigorousrevolutionsinWesternEuropeancountriesandtheUnitedStates,theQingDynastyofChinawasdreamingofa"heavenlygreatpower".CountriessuchastheUnitedKingdomwouldnotletthispieceoflandthatcouldplunderwealthbeletgo.Thisisalsoaninducement.OnereasonfortheOpiumWar.AfterthebeginningoftheIndustrialRevolution,Britain'saggressionagainstIndiaandSoutheastAsiaintensified,andIndia,Egypt,andBurmahavesuccessivelybecomeBritishcoloniesandsemi-colonies.
TheIndustrialRevolutionalsohadanimportantimpactonthedevelopmentofscienceinthe19thcentury.
Significance
(1)Theindustrialrevolutionisanimportantstageinthedevelopmenthistoryofcapitalism,whichhasrealizedanimportanttransformationfromatraditionalagriculturalsocietytoamodernindustrialsociety.
(2)Intermsofproductiontechnology,itmakesmachinesreplacemanuallabor;factoriesreplacemanualworkshops.
(3)Theindustrialrevolutionhascreatedtremendousproductivityandbroughtaboutearth-shakingchangesinthefaceofsociety.Theindustrialrevolutionisalsoaprofoundchangeinsocialrelations.Itclearlysplitsocietyintotwoopposingclasses-theindustrialbourgeoisieandtheindustrialproletariat.
(4)providesasolidmaterialfoundationforcapitalismtofinallydefeatfeudalism.
(5)Westerncapitalistcountriesthattooktheleadincompletingtheindustrialrevolutiongraduallyestablishedtheirdominationovertheworld,andtheworldformedasituationwheretheWestwasadvancedandtheEastwasbackward.
(6)broughtindustrialpollution.Theenvironmentalproblemgraduallybecameaseriousproblemafterthemiddleofthe19thcentury.
(7)Theurbanizationprocesshasbegun.
(8)Theweakandsmallcountrieshaveslowlyembarkedontheprocessofindustrialization.
Importantinvention
Beforetheindustrialrevolution:
In1698,BritishengineerThomasSevillebuiltthefirststeamengine.
In1712,theBritishThomasNewcomenobtainedthepatentforaslightlyimprovedsteamengine
JohnKayeinventedtheflyingshuttlein1733
AfterthestartoftheIndustrialRevolution:
JamesHargreavesJennySpinningMachinein1765(openedthepreludetotheIndustrialRevolution)
1768Arkrighthydro-spinningmachine
In1769,JamesWattimprovedNiukmen’ssteamengineasa"single-actingsteamengine"
1774JohnWilkinsonbarrelboringmachine
1775AlexanderCumming(AlexanderCumming)sewers-shapedpipe
1776JohnWilkinsoncylinderboringmachine
1778JosephBrahm(JosephBramah)Improvedflushtoilet
SamuelCromptonmuleenginein1779
In1782,Watt’smodifiedsteamenginewasa"linkedsteamengine",whichwasputintousein1785
1785EdmundCartwrighthydraulicloom
1796AloisSenefelderlithography
1797Mozleyscrewcuttingmachine
In1807,Fultonbuiltashippoweredbyasteamengine
1812RichardTrevithickKearneyBoiler
1814Stephensoninventedthesteamlocomotivein1815.
HumphreyDavidsafetylightin1815
ThesteamlocomotiveinventedbyStephensonin1825wassuccessfullytested
Williamin1844·FairbairninventedtheLancashireboiler
Historicalprocess
Thefirsttime
1860s-mid-19thcentury(HumanitybegantoenterthesteamTimes)
Theindustrialrevolutioncannotbeattributedsolelytothegeniusofasmallgroupofinventors.Althoughgeniusundoubtedlyplayedarole,whatismoreimportantisthecombinationofvariousadvantageousforcesthatworkedinthelate18thcentury.Exceptunderthestimulusofastrongneed,inventorsrarelymakeinventions.Manyprinciplesthatarethebasisofvariousnewinventionshavebeenknowntopeopleforcenturiesbeforetheindustrialrevolution,but,duetolackofstimulation,theyhavenotbeenappliedtoindustry.Forexample,thisisthecasewithsteampower.SteampowerwasknownandevenusedinancientEgyptintheHellenisticera,butitwasonlyusedtoopenandclosethegatesoftemples.However,intheUK,thereisanurgentneedforanewsourceofpowerinordertopumpwaterfromtheminesandturnthewheelsofnewmachinery.Asaresult,itledtoaseriesofinventionsandimprovements,untilfinallyasteamenginesuitableformassproductionwasdeveloped.
Thesefavorableconditionsledtoaseriesofinventionsthatmadeitpossibleforthecottontextileindustrytobefullymechanizedby1830.Amongthenewinventions,RichardArkwright’shydraulicspinningmachine(1796),JamesHargreaves’multi-spinningmachine(1770)andSamuelCrompton’sspinningspinningmachine(1779)isveryoutstanding.Thehydro-spinningmachinecanspinfineandstrongyarnbetweenthetoprollers;withamulti-axisspinningmachine,onepersoncanspin8yarnsatthesametime,then16yarns,andfinallymorethan100yarns;Thespindlespinningmachineisalsocalleda"mulemachine"becauseitcombinestheadvantagesofahydro-spinningmachineandamulti-spindlespinningmachine.Allthesenewspinningmachinesarequicklyproducingmuchmoreyarnthantheweavercanhandle.However,atthistime,nomachinewasinventedtoweavecloth,andmanpowerwasstillusedtoweavecloth.ApriestnamedEdmundCartwrighttriedtocorrectthisimbalance.In1785,heachievedakindoforiginalPatentrightforhorse-driven,steam-drivenhydraulicloomsafter1789.Thisnewinventioniscrudelyproducedandcommerciallyunprofitable.However,after20yearsofimprovement,itsmostseriousshortcomingshavebeencorrected.Bythe1820s,thispowerloomhadbasicallyreplacedthehand-wovenweaverinthecottontextileindustry.
Justasinventionsinspinningledtocorrespondinginventionsinweaving,inventionsinoneindustrypromotedcorrespondinginventionsinotherindustries.Thenewcottonspinningmachinecreatesaneedforpower,whichismoreabundantandmorereliablethanthepowerthattraditionalwaterwheelsandhorsescanprovide.Around1702,anoriginalsteamenginewasmadebyThomasNewcomen(Newcomen)andwaswidelyusedtopumpwaterfromcoalmines.However,comparedtothepoweritprovides,itconsumestoomuchfuel,sotheeconomyisonlyapplicabletothecoalfielditself.
In1763,JamesWatt,atechnicianattheUniversityofGlasgow,begantoimproveNewcomen’ssteamengine.HeformedacareerpartnershipwithmanufacturerMatthewBolton,whoraisedfundsforratherexpensiveexperimentsandinitialmodels.Thisundertakingprovedtobeextremelysuccessful;bythetimethatWatt'sbasicpatentexpiredin1800,about500Bolton-Wattsteamengineswerealreadyinuse.38%ofthesteamengineisusedforpumpingwater,andtherestisusedtoproviderotarypowerfortextilemills,ironfurnaces,flourmillsandotherindustries.However,thesmoothinventionofthesteamenginewasalsoinseparablefromthenaturalenvironmentandsocialfactorsatthetime.Asearlyas120BC,peopleinancientEgypthadstudiedsteamasapowersource.Accordingtostatistics,inthefollowingmorethan1,800years,nolessthan20inventorstriedsteamaspower,butnoneofthemhadmadearelativelycompletesteamengineandwaswidelyusedinproduction.Therefore,somepeoplesaid:"IfWattwasbornahundredyearsearlier,andheandhisinventionwilldietogether!”Itcanbeseenthattheenvironmentisalsoveryimportant.
Thehistoricalsignificanceofthesteamengineisoftenexaggeratedconsciouslyorunconsciously.Itprovidesameanstomanageandutilizethermalenergy,andtoprovideimpetusformachinery.Asaresult,itendedhumanity'slong-standingdependenceonanimalpower,windandwaterpower.Atthistime,ahugenewenergysourcehasbeenobtainedbymankind,andsoon,mankindwillbeabletodevelopotherfossilfuelshiddenintheearth,namelyoilandgas.Inthisway,atrendbegan,whichledtothesituationatthattime:WesternEuropeandNorthAmericaeachhad11.5timesand29timestheenergyavailabletoeachpersoninAsia,respectively.Thesignificanceofthesenumbersisobviousinaworldwhereeconomicpowerandmilitarypoweraredirectlydependentontheenergyavailable.Infact,somepeoplethinkthatinthe19thcentury,Europe'scontroloftheworldwasbasedonthesteamengine,buttheroleofthesteamengineshouldnotbeoveremphasized,becausethe19thcenturyEurope'sconquestofAsiaandAfricawasdominatedbyforce.
Newcottonspinningmachinesandsteamenginesrequireanincreaseinthesupplyofiron,steelandcoal-thisneedismetthroughaseriesofimprovementsinminingandmetallurgy.Originally,ironorewassmeltedinasmallfurnacefilledwithcharcoal.Thedepletionoftheforestforcedtheproducerstoturntocoal;itwasatthistime,in1709,thatAbrahamDarbydiscoveredthatcoalcanbeturnedintocoke,justaswoodcanbeturnedintocharcoal.Cokeprovedtobeaseffectiveascharcoal,anditwasmuchcheaper.Darby'ssondevelopedahugebellowsdrivenbyawaterwheel,thusmakingthefirstmechanicallyoperatedblastfurnace,whichgreatlyreducedthecostofiron.
In1760,JohnSmithtonmadefurtherimprovements;hediscardedtheleatherandwoodbellowsusedbyDarbyandreplaceditwithapumpconsistingoffourpumps.Itconsistsofametalcylinderwithpistonsandvalvesandisdrivenbyawaterwheel.What'smoreimportantistheimprovementmadebyHenryCot,whoinventedthe"pounding"methodtoremoveimpuritiesfrommoltenpigironin1784.Littleputthemoltenpigironinareverberatoryfurnaceandstirredor"smelted"it.Inthisway,thecarboninthemeltisremovedbytheoxygenintheaircirculatinginthemelt.Afterremovingcarbonandotherimpurities,hotironisproducedthatismoretoughthanthefragilemoltenpigironorpigiron.Atthattime,inordertokeepupwiththerisingneedsoftheironindustry,coalminingtechnologywasalsoimproved.Itisextremelyimportantthatthesteamengineisusedforminedrainage,andthesafetylightinventedbySirHumphreyDavidin1815.Thesafetylightgreatlyreducesthedangerinmining.
Asaresultofthesedevelopments,Britainproducedmorecoalandironby1800thantherestoftheworldcombined.Morespecifically,Britishcoalproductionrosefrom6milliontonsin1770to12milliontonsin1800,andthento57milliontonsin1861.Similarly,Britishironproductionincreasedfrom50,000tonsin1770to130,000tonsin1800,andthento3.8milliontonsin1861.Ironhasbeenabundantandcheapenoughtobeusedingeneralconstruction.Asaresult,mankindhasnotonlyenteredthesteamage,butalsothesteelage.
Thedevelopmentofthetextileindustry,miningindustryandmetallurgicalindustryhasledtotheneedforimprovedmeansoftransport,whichcantransportlargeamountsofcoalandore.Themostimportantstepinthisdirectionwastakenin1761;thatyear,theDukeofBridgewatercommissionedJamesBrindleytoopena7-milecanalbetweenthecoalminesinManchesterandWorsley.ThepriceofcoalinManchesterfellbyhalf;later,theDukeextendedhiscanaltotheMerseyRiver,costingonlyone-sixthofthepricechargedbylandmovers.Theseamazingresultscausedaheatofcanalexcavation,whichenabledBritaintohave2,500milesofcanalsby1830.
Paralleltothecanaleraisthegreatroadconstructionperiod.Theroadswereveryprimitiveatfirst,andpeoplecouldonlytravelonfootorhorseback;duringtherainyseason,thetrucksloadedwithgoodscouldhardlybemovedbyhorsesonsuchroads.
Attheendofthe18thcentury,agroupofroadconstructionengineers—JohnMetcalf,ThomasTelford,andJohnMcAdam—inventedtheTrafficroadtechnology.Thespeedoftravelinginafour-wheeledcarriagehasincreasedfrom4milesperhourto6miles,8milesoreven10miles.Nighttravelisalsopossible,sothetravelfromEdinburghtoLondonusedtotake14days,butonly44hours.
After1830,roadsandwaterwayswerechallengedbyrailways.Thisnewmodeoftransportationisrealizedintwophases.Thefirsttoappearweresteelrailsorrailroadtracksthathadbeencommonlyusedbythemiddleofthe18thcentury.Theywereusedtotransportcoalfromthemouthofaminetoacertainwaterwayorplacewherecoalwasburned.Itissaidthatonthetrack,awomanorachildcanpullathree-quarter-tontruck,andonehorsecandowhat22horsesdoonordinaryroads.Thesecondstageistoinstallthesteamengineonthetruck.ThemainfiguresinthisregardaretheminingengineerGeorgeStephensonandtheengineerTrevithick.StephensonfirstusedalocomotivetopullseveralcoalcartsfromtheminetotheTyne.In1830,hislocomotive"Rocket"traveled31milesatanaveragespeedof14milesperhour,pullingatrainfromLiverpooltoManchester.Injustafewyears,railwaysdominatedlong-distancetransportation,capableoftransportingpassengersandgoodsatafasterspeedandlowercostthanpossibleonroadsorcanals.By1838,Britainhad500milesofrailway;by1850,ithad6,600milesofrailway;by1870,ithad15,500milesofrailway.
Steamenginesarealsousedinwatertransportation.Since1770,inventorsinScotland,France,andtheUnitedStateshavetestedsteamenginesonships.ThefirstsuccessfulcommercialsteamboatwasbuiltbytheAmericanRobertFulton;hewenttoEnglandtostudypainting,butaftergettingacquaintedwithJamesWatt,heswitchedtoengineering.In1807,helaunchedhis"Clermont"steamerontheHudsonRiver.TheshipisequippedwithaWatt-stylesteamengineusedtodrivepaddlewheels,andittravels150milesuptheHudsonRivertoAlbany.OtherinventorsalsofollowedFultonasanexample.AmongthemwasHenryBellofGlasgow,wholaidthefoundationfortheScottishshipbuildingindustryonbothsidesoftheClydeRiver.Earlysteamboatswereonlyusedforriverandcoastalnavigation,butin1833,the"RoyalWilliam"steamersailedfromNovaScotiatoEngland.Fiveyearslater,the"Sirius"and"GreatWestern"steamboatscrossedtheAtlanticinoppositedirectionsin16andahalfdaysand13andahalfdays,respectively,travelingabouthalfthetimerequiredbythefastestsailingship.
In1840,SamuelKennardestablishedatransatlanticregularshippinglineandannouncedthearrivalanddeparturedatesofshipsinadvance.Kennardpreachedthathisrouteisan"oceanrailway"thathasreplaced"anannoyingirregularitythatisinseparablefromthesailingage."By1850,steamshipshadsurpassedsailingshipsintransportingpassengersandmail,andbegantosuccessfullycompeteforfreight.
Theindustrialrevolutionnotonlycausedarevolutionintransportation,butalsoincommunication.Inthepast,peoplehavealwaysbeenabletosendamessagetoaremoteplaceonlythroughacarriage,apostoraboat.However,inthemid-nineteenthcentury,thetelegraphwasinvented;thechairmanoftheinventionwasCharlesWheatstone,anEnglishman,andtwoAmericans,SamuelMorseandAlfredVail.In1866,peoplelaidacableacrosstheAtlanticOcean,establishingadirectcommunicationlinkbetweentheEasternHemisphereandtheAmericas.
Inthisway,humanshaveconqueredtimeandspace.Sinceancienttimes,humanshavealwaysexpressedthedistancebetweendifferentplacesbythenumberofhoursrequiredtotravelbyhorse-drawncarriage,horse-riding,orsailing.Butbythebeginningofthe21stcentury,humanbeingshavecrossedtheearthwearingone-stepbootsthatspansevenleagues.Mankindcancrossoceansandcontinentsbymeansofsteamboatsandrailways,andcancommunicatewithcompatriotsallovertheworldbytelegraph.Theseachievements,togetherwithotherachievementsthatenabledhumanstousetheenergyofcoal,produceironatalowcost,andspin100yarnsatthesametime,demonstratetheimpactandsignificanceofthefirststageoftheindustrialrevolution.Thisstageunifiestheworld,andthedegreeofunificationgreatlyexceedsthedegreeofunificationthattheworldhadearlierintheRomanorMongolianera;anditmadepossibleEuropeandominationoftheworld,andthisdominationcontinueduntilTheIndustrialRevolutionspreadtootherregions.
Thenecessityoftriggeringtheindustrialrevolutionisthemarket.
Thesecondtime
Thesecondhalfofthe19thcentury-thebeginningofthe20thcentury(mankindbegantoentertheelectricalage,andreacheditspeakintheinformationrevolutionandinformationrevolution)
TheIndustrialRevolutionthatbeganinthelate18thcenturyhascontinuedsteadilyandunremittinglyuntiltheendofthe19thcentury.Therefore,dividingitsdevelopmentprocessintodifferentperiodsisessentiallyarbitrary.However,if1870isregardedasatransitionaldate,adivisioncanstillbemade.Itwasaround1870thattwoimportantdevelopmentsoccurred-sciencebegantogreatlyinfluenceindustry,andmassproductiontechniqueswereimprovedandapplied.
Wementionedinthepreviouschapterthatsciencehadnoimpactonindustryatthebeginning.Theinventionsinthetextileindustry,miningindustry,metallurgicalindustry,andtransportationindustrythatwehavementionedsofararerarelymadebyscientists.Instead,theyaremostlydonebytalentedcraftsmenwhorespondtoextraordinaryeconomicstimuli.However,after1870,sciencebegantoplayamoreimportantrole.Gradually,itbecameanintegralpartofalllargeindustrialproduction.Industrialresearchlaboratoriesareequippedwithexpensiveinstrumentsandwell-trainedscientistswhoconductsystematicresearchonspecifiedproblems.Theyreplacetheloftsandworkshopsofloneinventors.Intheearlydays,inventionsweretheresultofindividualsrespondingtoopportunities.Today,inventionsarearrangedinadvanceandareactuallycustomized.WalterLippmannhasproperlydescribedthisnewsituationasfollows:
Fromtheearliesttimes,machineshavebeeninvented,theyareextremelyimportant,suchaswheels,suchassailboats,suchaswindmillsandwater.vehicle.However,inmoderntimes,peoplehaveinventedmethodsofmakinginventions,andpeoplehavediscoveredmethodsofmakingdiscoveries.Mechanicalprogressisnolongeraccidentalandaccidental,butsystematicandincremental.Weknowthatwewillmakemoreandmoreperfectmachines;thisissomethingthatpeoplehaveneverrealizedbefore.
After1870,allindustrieswereinfluencedbyscience.Forexample,inmetallurgy,manytechnologicalmethods(Bessemersteelmakingmethod,Siemens-MartinsteelmakingmethodandGilchrist-Thomassteelmakingmethod)havebeeninvented,makingitpossibletoobtainlargequantitiesofironorefromlow-gradeironore.Toproducehigh-gradesteel.Thepowerindustrywascompletelyreformedduetotheuseofelectricityandtheinventionoftheinternalcombustionenginethatmainlyusedpetroleumandgasoline.Communicationwasalsotransformedbytheinventionofradio.In1896,GuglielmoMarconiinventedamachinethatcouldtransmitandreceiveinformationwithoutwires.However,hisresultswerebasedontheScottishphysicistJamesClarkMaxwellandtheGermanphysicistHenrich·BasedonHertz'sresearch.Thepetroleumindustryhasdevelopedrapidlybecausegeologistsandchemistshavedonealotofwork;geologistshaveexploredoilfieldswithextraordinaryaccuracy,andchemistshaveinventedtheextractionofnaphtha,gasoline,kerosene,andlightandheavylubricantsfromcrudeoil.Variousmethods.Oneofthemoststrikingexamplesoftheimpactofscienceonindustrycanbefoundincoalderivatives.Inadditiontoprovidingcokeandvaluablegasforlighting,coalalsoprovidesaliquid,namelycoaltar.Chemistshavefoundrealtreasuresinthissubstance-variousderivatives,includinghundredsofdyesandalargenumberofotherby-productssuchasaspirin,wintergreenoil,saccharin,disinfectants,laxatives,perfumes,photographychemicalsProducts,strongexplosivesandorangefloweressence,etc.
Thesecondstageoftheindustrialrevolutionwasalsocharacterizedbythedevelopmentofmassproductiontechnology.TheUnitedStatesleadsinthisrespect,justasGermanyleadsinscience.SomeobviousadvantagesthattheUnitedStateshascanexplainthereasonswhyitranksfirstinmassproduction:ahugetreasuretroveofrawmaterials;sufficientcapitalsupplyfornativesandEuropeans;continuousinfluxofcheapimmigrantlabor;hugecontinentalscaleThedomesticmarket,rapidlygrowingpopulation,andever-increasinglivingstandards.
ThetwomainmethodsofmassproductionweredevelopedintheUnitedStates.Onemethodistomanufacturestandard,interchangeableparts,andthenassemblethesepartsintoacompleteunitwiththeleastamountofmanuallabor.AmericaninventorEliWhitneyusedthismethodtomanufacturemassmusketsforthegovernmentatthebeginningofthe19thcentury.Becausehisfactoryisbasedonthisnewprinciple,ithasattractedwidespreadattentionandhasbeenvisitedbymanytravelers.InthedecadesafterWhitney,machinesweremademoreandmoreprecise,soitwaspossibletoproducepartsthatwerenotnearlythesamebutexactlythesame.Thesecondmethodappearedintheearly20thcenturyandwastodesigna"pipeline."HenryFordgainedfameandalotofwealthforinventingtheendlessconveyorbeltthatcouldtransportcarpartstotheplaceneededbytheassemblyworkers.
Oneday,acarchassiswastiedtoasteelcable.Whenthewinchdraggedthesteelcablethroughthefactory,sixworkersmadeahistorictripof250feetalongthesteelcable;Pickupthepartsalongthewayanduseboltstofixtheminplaceonthechassisofthecar.Theexperimentisfinished,butadifficultyarises.GoddoesnotmakemanaspreciseasFordmakespistonrings.Theassemblylineistootallforashortperson,andtoolowforatallperson,andtheresultisawasteofeffort.
So,moreexperiments.Firstraisetheassemblyline,thenlowertheassemblyline,andthentrytwoassemblylinestosuitpeopleofdifferentheights;firstincreasethespeedoftheassemblyline,thenreducethespeedoftheassemblyline,andthendovariousexperimentstodeterminehowmanypeopleneedtobeplacedonanassemblyline,Howfaraparteachprocessshouldbe,whethertoallowthepersonwhoinstalledthebolttoputonthenutagain,sothatthepersonwhoinstalledthenuthastimetotightenthenut.Finally,thetimestipulatedfortheassemblyofeachcarchassisisreducedfrom18hours28minutesto1hour33minutes,andtheworldmaygetanewandlargenumberofModelTcars;asworkersbecomemoreeffectiveontheirmachinesThemassproductionofgearteethhasenteredanewstage.
Then,withthehelpofadvancedmachineryandequipment,thehandlingoflargepilesofrawmaterialswasimproved.ThismethodofmassproductionhasalsobeenimprovedintheUnitedStates,thebestexampleofwhichisfoundinthesteelindustry.Thefollowingdescriptionoftheprocessofmanufacturingrailroadrailsillustratesthismethod:
Thesteelindustryhasdevelopedthis...continuousproduction...inahugearea.TheironorecomesfromMesabiRidge.Thesteamshovelscoopstheironoreintothetraincarriage;thecarriageishauledtoDuluthorSuperior,andthenentersthewharfabovesomerecesses.Whenthebottomofthecarriageisturnedoutward,theironoreinthecarriageisdischargedintoRecesses;slipwaysallowironorefromtherecessestoenterthecargoholdoftheoreship.InthePortofLakeErie,theoreshipwasunloadedbyanautomaticdevice,andtheorewasloadedintotraincarriages;inPittsburgh,thesecarriageswereunloadedbyautomaticdumptrucks.Boxes;theloadingcartransportsthecoke,limestoneandtheoreintheseboxestothetopoftheblastfurnaceandpoursthemintothefurnace.Thus,theblastfurnacebeganproduction.Fromtheblastfurnace,themoltenironcharteredcartransfersthestillhotpigirontothemixingfurnace,andthentotheopenfurnace.Inthisway,fuelsavingshavebeenachieved.Then,theopenhearthbegantotapthesteel.Themoltensteelflowsintothehugeladle.Fromthere,itflowsintothemoldontheflatbed.Alocomotivepushestheflatbedtoseveralpits,andtheingotsleftnakedafterremovingthemoldareplaced.Thesepitsarekeptwarmuntiltheyaretied.Theconveyortransportsthesteelingotstotherollingmill,andtheautomaticplatformisraisedandloweredfromtimetotime,throwingrailsoftherequiredshapebackandforthbetweentherollingequipment.Theresultingsteelrailhasanexcellentshape,andifthereisaslightdeviation,itwillbediscarded.Electriccranes,ladle,conveyors,dumptrucks,unloadersandloadersmaketheproductionofironorefromminestorailsanincrediblyautomaticanddynamicthing.
Fromapurelyeconomicpointofview,whatthisscaleofmassproductionmeanscanbeseeninthefollowingundisputedbigwordsofthesteelkingAndrewCarnegie:
MinedtwopoundsofironandstonefromLakeSuperiorandtransportedittoPittsburgh,whichis900milesaway;minedoneandahalfpoundofcoal,madecoke,andtransportedittoPittsburgh;minedhalfapoundoflimeandtransportedittoPittsburgh;minedasmallamountofmanganeseoreinVirginiaandtransportedittoPittsburgh-Thesefourpoundsofrawmaterialsmakeonepoundofsteel,andconsumersonlypayapennyforthispoundofsteel.
Scienceandmassproductionmethodshavenotonlyaffectedindustry,butalsoagriculture.Moreover,thisishappeningagaininGermany,whichleadsinscientificapplications,andtheUnitedStates,whichleadsinmassproduction.GermanchemistLiebigdiscoveredthatinordertomaintainthefertilityofthesoil,itisnecessarytorestorethenitrogen,potassiumandphosphorustakenupbyplantsinthesoil.Initially,naturalfertilizerswereusedforthispurpose,buttowardstheendofthe19thcentury,naturalfertilizersgavewaytopurer,essentialinorganicsubstances.Asaresult,theworldwideproductionofinorganicsubstancesincreasedgreatly.Between1850and1913,theoutputofnitrate,potash,andsuperphosphaterosefrominsignificantamountsto899,800metrictons(three-quartersofwhichwereusedtomakefertilizers)and1,348,000.Metrictonsand16,251,213tons.
Thethirdtime
Thelatterhalfofthe20thcentury,approximatelyafterWorldWarII.(Mankindhasenteredtheeraofscienceandtechnology,theemergenceofbiologicalcloningtechnology,theemergenceofaerospacetechnology,EuropeandtheUnitedStateshavecalledthe21stcenturysystemsandsyntheticbiologywilltriggerthethirdindustrialrevolution,thatis,thebiotechnologyandindustrialrevolution).
BiotechnologyandIndustrialRevolutioninthe21stCentury
ThefinancialcrisistriggeredbytheUnitedStateshasspreadtotheworld.Itisbothacrisisandanopportunity.Thetransformationofindustrialmodelorindustrialstructureisoftenafeatureoftheneweconomyandnewindustryera,andtechnologicalrevolutionhasbroughtaboutindustrialrevolution.SincethefirstindustrialrevolutionstartedintheMidwestofEngland,andthesecondindustrialrevolutionoccurredinEuropeandAmericaalmostatthesametime,theformationofsocialindustrialstructureandeconomicgrowthhavedevelopedintoanewhistoricalperiod.
Thescientificandtechnologicalmethodologyofthe20thcenturyhasshiftedfromempiricalanalysistosystemintegration.Thedevelopmentofartificialintelligenceandmicroelectronicstechnologyhasledtocomputer,telecommunications,andotherinformationindustryrevolutions(ie,informationrevolution,informationrevolution),andagenomeproject,Thedevelopmentofbioinformatics.Comprehensivephilosophywasformedlongbeforethebirthofsystemscience,Spencer'ssyntheticphilosophy,Russell'sphilosophicalanalysisandsynthesis,Whitehead'sorganicphilosophy,etc.attheendofthe19thcenturyandthebeginningofthe20thcentury.Inthelate1980sandearly1990s,theChinesePhilosophyofSciencesessiondiscussedcomprehensivephilosophy,systemsscienceandtraditionalmedicine,andChinesephilosophy.ZengBangzhe(Jie)oftheChineseAcademyofSciencesexpoundedtheconceptsofsystemsbioengineeringandsystemgeneticsinthe1990s,1999CreatedtheSystemBiologyScienceandEngineeringNetwork(English)inGermany.In2000,L.HoodintheUnitedStatesandH.KitanoinJapanestablishedsystemsbiologyresearchinstitutions.In2003,theUnitedStatesJ.KeaslingestablishedtheDepartmentofGeneticEngineering-SyntheticBiologybasedonSystemsBiology.In2005,FrenchF.CambienandL.Tiretdiscussedtheconceptofsystematicgeneticsinarteriosclerosisresearch.Subsequently,theworldexplosivelymovedtowardsthedevelopmenttrendoftechnologyandindustryintegratingcomputerscienceandbiologicalscience,whichwillbringaboutthe21stcenturycellpharmaceuticalfactoryandcellcomputerbio-industrialera.EuropeanandAmericannationalscienceandtechnologydecision-makinginstitutionshaveformulatededucation,scientificresearch,andindustrialreformpolicies.,ChinahasintroducedmajorprojectsanddecisionsforthemodernizationoftheChinesemedicineindustryinthedevelopmentofgeneticbiotechnologyandsystemsmedicine.
InJune2007,AcademicianRIKitney,ChairmanoftheDepartmentofBiomedicineandBioengineeringoftheRoyalAcademyofEngineering,said:"Thecouplingofsystemsbiologyandsyntheticbiologywillproducethethirdindustrialrevolution",subvertingTechnologicalandindustrialchangesinthefieldsofcomputer,nanometer,biologyandmedicinearethebio-industrialrevolution.Theentireindustrialstructureofthe21stcenturywillbetransformedintothebiological(chemical)physicsallianceindustrialmodelofsystematicbiologicalengineering,thatis,thematerials,energy,andinformationindustriesthatintegrateecological,genetic,bionicandmechanical,chemical,andelectromagneticengineeringapplications.Machinebiologicalsystemprinciples(evolution,geneticcalculation),biologicalmaterials(nanobiomolecules,engineeredbiologicalmaterials)andgeneticallyengineeredorganisms,etc.Computersciencetheoryoriginatesfromtheresearchofanimalcommunicationbehavior,neuralsystemcybernetics,andinformationtheory;theexplorationofintracellularandintercellularcommunicationbehaviorhasledtothedevelopmentofsystembiologyscienceandengineering,whichwillformthefutureofmaterials,energyandinformationall-roundbioindustry.
Relatedworks
Theanthropologicalwork"HumanDestiny:ChangesandRules"believesthattheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftheindustrialrevolutionshouldbeexamineddialectically.Manycountriesthathavesucceededintheindustrialrevolutionhavenotonlysufferedmoreseriousenvironmentalpollution,butalsohaveincreasinglyindifferentinterpersonalrelationships.
Expand
Duringthe19thcentury,theIndustrialRevolutiongraduallyspreadfromBritaintotheEuropeancontinentandevennon-Europeanpartsoftheworld.Inthebeginning,therewerevariousobstaclesincommunication.ThereisalawintheUKthatprohibitstheexportofmachinery,andthesituationincontinentalEuropeisnotconducivetoindustrialization,especiallybecauseofthepoweroftheguildsandtheturmoilassociatedwiththeAmericanRevolutionaryWarandtheNapoleonicWars.However,thewarendedin1815,andtheBritishlawwasabolishedin1825.Soon,thecrazeforlayingrailroadsthatbeganinBritaininthe1830saffectedtheEuropeancontinent.Inaddition,atthistime,Britishindustrialistswereaccumulatingsurpluscapitalandlookingforopportunitiestoinvestinthemainland.By1830,Francealoneemployed15,000to20,000Britishworkerstooperatethenewmachinery.
OncetheIndustrialRevolutionbegantospread,certainfactorsdeterminedthewayitspreads.Anadequatesupplyofnaturalresources,especiallysteel,andafreeandmobilelaborforcethatisnothinderedbyguildrestrictionsorfeudalobligationsareveryimportant.Belgiumsatisfiesthesetworequirementsand,therefore,becamethefirstcountryontheEuropeancontinenttobeindustrialized.Thisprocessstartedbefore1830andproceededveryquickly.By1870,mostBelgianshadlivedincitiesanddependeddirectlyonindustryortrade.Asearlyas1830,Belgiumproduced6milliontonsofcoaleachyear.By1913,thisfigurehadrisento23milliontons.However,othersectorsofindustryalsodevelopedveryrapidly,sofrom1840,BelgiumhadtoimportcoalfromBritain.
FranceisfollowedbyBelgium,butforseveralreasons,itsdevelopmentspeedismuchfaster.ThelocationsofcoalandironresourcesinFranceareseparatedbyacertaindistance.Moreover,afterFrance'sdefeatintheFranco-PrussianWarin1871,theiron-richAlsace-LorraineregionwascededtoGermany,furtherweakeningFrance'sposition.Frenchindustryhastraditionallyspecializedintheproductionofluxurygoodsthatareextremelyunsuitableformechanizationandmassproduction.Inaddition,thesupplyoflaborwasrestrictedbecausetheguildswereverypowerfulandthefarmerswerereluctanttoleavetheland,especiallyafterthelandwasallocatedduringtherevolution.However,industrializationdidgraduallyaffectFrance,especiallyinnorthernFrance-inAlsace-LorraineandthesurroundingareasofLille,RouenandParis.Thenumberofsteamenginesincreasedfrom15in1815to1,625in1830,26,146in1871,and82,238in1910.After1870,industrializationdevelopedthefastest;in1870,thevalueofFrenchmanufacturedgoodswas2billionfrancs,andby1897,ithadgrownto15billionfrancs.However,thefactremainsthatby1914,FrancewasnotasfullyindustrializedasBelgium,BritainorGermany.
Germany'sindustrializationmethodiscompletelydifferentfromFrance.Duetopoliticaldisunity,poortransportation,strongguilds,andvariousotherreasons,Germanydevelopedveryslowlyatthebeginning.However,after1871,Germanindustryadvancedatagiantpace,bringingallothereconomiesinEurope.IncludingtheBritisheconomy,theyarealllaggingbehind.In1871,theestablishmentoftheGermanEmpirecontributedtothisamazingprogress.Atthesametime,theacquisitionoftheAlsace-LorraineregionenabledGermany'srichnaturalresourcestoincreaseitspreciousironreserves.GermanyalsohastheadvantageofhavingnewmachinerythatismoreeffectivethanBritain’solderequipmentfromthebeginning.Moreover,theGermangovernmenthasalsoprovidedimmensehelpbyestablishinganetworkofcanalsandrailways,providingtariffprotectionandsubsidieswhennecessary,anddevelopinganeffectiveeducationsystemthatcantrainaseriesofwell-trainedscientistsandtechnicians.ThesefactorsenabledGermanytosurpassallotherEuropeancountriesinthesteel,chemicalandpowerindustriesby1914,andtofollowtheUnitedKingdomincoalminingandtextileindustries.In1914,thenumberofworkersinGermanindustryrosetotwo-fifthsofthetotallaborforce,whilethenumberoflaborersinagriculturefelltoone-thirdofthetotallaborforce.
By1914,severalotherEuropeancountrieshadalsodevelopedhugeindustries,themostimportantofwhichweretheRussianEmpire,theAustro-HungarianEmpireandItaly.Amongoverseascountries,theUnitedStateshasadvancedatanextraordinaryspeed,whileJapan,Canada,andAustraliahavealsomadesignificantprogress.Inparticular,theUnitedStateshasbecometheworld'snumberoneindustrialpowerbythebeginningofthe20thcenturybyvirtueoftheuniqueadvantagesmentionedabove.Forexample,insteelproduction,in1910,theUnitedStatesproduced2,6512,000metrictonsofsteel,whileitsmostevenlymatchedcompetitor,Germany,produced1,3698,000metrictonsofsteel;intermsofcoalproduction,theUnitedStatesproduced617millionmetrictons,whichrankedsecond.GreatBritain'sproductionis292millionmetrictons.
Wecanconcludethatby1914theIndustrialRevolutionhadspreadgreatlyfromitsearliestcenterintheBritishIsles.Infact,thisspreadhasreachedsuchahugescalethattheUnitedKingdomnotonlyfacesterriblecompetitionatthistime,buthasbeensurpassedbytwoothercountries,GermanyandtheUnitedStates.
Evaluation
Intheearlierstageoftheindustrialrevolution,peoplewereforcedtoadapttonewlivingconditions.Peoplemovedfromfarmstocities,andthewholefamilyworkedinfactoriesformostoftheirlives.Asaresult,manynewissuesconcerninghealth,welfare,andelderlycarehaveoccurred,sometimesunsolvedissues.Manypeopleliveindenselypopulatedareasincities,causingcleanliness,housing,policeandcrimeproblems.
Industrializationanditsaccompanyingchangeshaveincreasedthelivingstandardsofmostpeopleintheworld.Comparedwiththepast,moregoodsareavailableandthecostislower.However,increasingthedemandforgoodsmeanstheconsumptionofrawmaterialsandthepollutionoftheenvironment.Duetotheincreasedadoptionofmassproductiontechnology,theculturalcharacteristicsofcertainpartsoftheworldintermsoffood,clothing,housing,entertainment,andlifestyletendtobestandardized.
Industrializationhasalsochangedthegovernment.Manycountriesexerciseimperialismtocontrolvariousrawmaterialsandmarketsinordertosupportindustrialdevelopment.Industrialworkers(theproletariat)learnedtheskillsoforganizationandnegotiation.Therefore,theprocessofdemocracyacceleratesbecauseworkersdemandmoresayinthemanagementofsociety.
Impact
1.Theindustrialrevolutionhascausedchangesintheformofproductionorganization,usingmachine-basedfactorysystemstoreplacemanualworkshops.
2.Theindustrialrevolutionhasbroughturbanizationandpopulationmigrationtocities.
3.Theindustrialrevolutionhasbroughtacertaindegreeofchangetopeople'sdailylifeandthoughts.
4.However,industrializationandurbanizationalsoproducenewsocialproblems.Forexample:thepolarizationoftherichandthepoor,theexpansionoftheurbanpopulation,crowdedhousing,environmentalpollutionandotherabuses.
5.Theindustrialrevolutionalsocausedchangesinthesocialstructure.
6.Fundamentallyspeaking,thesubsequentinternationalcommunistmovementwasanindirectproductoftheIndustrialRevolution.
7.Leapinproductivity
8.Therearetwoclassesthatdirectlyopposeeachother:theindustrialbourgeoisieandtheindustrialproletariat.
Theimpactoftheindustrialrevolutiononsocialthoughts
1.Theindustrialrevolutionmakespeoplefeelthat"manisconqueringthesky",andvariousmaterialshaveagreatimpactonpeople'sthoughts;
2.ThematerializationoflargeindustriesintheindustrialrevolutionandtheoppositionofsocialcontradictionsledtotheemergenceofMarxism;
3.Themassivesurplusofmaterialandtherelativepovertyofthepeopleintensifiedsocialcontradictionsandtheturbulenttrendofrevolutionarythought,theUnitedKingdom,etc.Thecountryimplemented"democracy"throughreforms,andmadethemodernstatesystemtrulyemerge;
4.Establishthesocialvaluesofgettingrich
Theimpactoftheindustrialrevolutiononthesocialstructure
1.Thepeopleofindustrializedcountriesareincreasinglydividedintothebourgeoisieandtheworkingclass;
2.Thecapitalistshaveincreasinglystrongereconomicandpoliticalpower,andgainadvantagesintheconfrontationwiththenobility;
3.Sincethen,mankindhasproducedalargenumberofindustrialgatherings,whichaffectstherelationshipbetweenmankind.
ImpactonEuropeanRelations
BritainhasbecomestrongerbecauseoftheIndustrialRevolution,FrancehasmaintaineditspositioninEuropebecauseoftheIndustrialRevolution,Prussiahasbecomemoreprosperous,andAustria,Russia,andSpainhavedeclineddaybyday.
Impactontheenvironment
1.Aftertheindustrialrevolution,thetotalamountofcoalintheworldhasdroppedrapidly;andoilandnaturalgas(biogas)areequal
2.Industrialdevelopmenthassharplyincreasedtheemissionsofcarbondioxide,freonandcarbonmonoxide.
3.Increaseproductionland,makealargenumberofanimalsonthevergeoforhavebecomeextinct,anddestroythebiologicalchain.Viciouscircle.
Impactonthemodeofproduction
①Theindustrialrevolutiongreatlyimprovedlaborefficiencyandgreatlyincreasedtheratioofproductvaluetolaborvalue
②TheindustrialrevolutiongreatlyincreasedlaborIntensityandlabortime,andthesimplificationoflabor.
③Causesthetransformationofmanualworkshopindustrytofactoryindustry
④Createstheeraofmanufacturinglargemachines
YesTheinfluenceoftheworldpattern
①Improveproductivityandconsolidatetherulingfoundationofcapitalistcountries;
②Intensifytiesbetweenallpartsoftheworld,changethefaceoftheworld,andestablishthebourgeoisie’sWorlddomination;
③Objectivelydisseminateadvancedproductiontechnologyandproductionmethods,impactingtheoldsystemsandideasofthecolonies;
④Westerncolonialplunderinghasincreased,andthepeopleinthecolonieshavebecomemoreimpoverished,ThedifficultymakestheEastsubordinatetotheWest;
⑤Britainbecomesthe"worldfactory"andmastersthedominanceoftheworldeconomy;
⑥Signtheinitialformationoftheworldmarket
ImpactonthestructureofWesternsociety
1.Ithascausedmajorchangesinthesocialstructure,andhasincreasinglysplitthesocietyintotwoopposingclasses-theindustrialbourgeoisieandtheproletariat;
2Liberalismreplacesmercantilism;
3.Marktheinitialformationoftheworldmarket;
4.Promotetheriseofmoderncities,theurbanprocessisaccelerated,thepopulationgrowsrapidly,andpeople’slifestylesIdeologicalconceptshavechanged;
5.TheSino-BritishOpiumWarhascausedChinatobecomeasemi-colonialandsemi-feudalsociety.
Impactonthesocialenvironment
Intheageofindustrialsociety,civiliansaremoreimpoverished,environmentalpollution,crimeandothernewsocialproblems.
ImpactonChina
ThescientificandtechnologicalrevolutionsofEuropeanandAmericancountriesalsohelpedChinaatthattime.China’smodernindustrializationbegantodevelopfromtheintroductionofadvancedscienceandtechnologyfromEuropeanandAmericancountries.ThisistheWesternizationMovement.AfterexperiencingtheJiangnanmanufacturingindustryinthetimesofZengGuofanandShengXuanhuai,andthespecialeconomiczoneeraofGuangdongandFujian,itbegantodevelopfromthePearlRiverDelta,theYangtzeRiverDeltaandtheBohaiBaytothecentralandwesternregions.Theessenceofeconomicgrowthistechnologicalinnovationandindustrialization,whichisreflectedinthesocialvitalityofscientists,entrepreneursandfinanciers.Aimingatthenewtechnologicalrevolutionandseizingtheentireeconomicchainfromtechnologicalcreativitytoproductmarketizationinatimelymannerwillbringopportunitiesfortheeconomytorisefromthefoundation.
Laterinfluence
Intheperiodbefore1763,theEuropeanpowersonlyhadafewfootholdsinAsiaandAfrica,andtheirmainpossessionswereinNorthandSouthAmerica.After1763,theypoliticallycontrolledmostofAsiaandalmosttheentireAfrica.However,inNorthandSouthAmerica,theycandomuchmorethanthis.TheyusetherelativelysparsepopulationoftheAmericastotrulyEuropeanizeNorthandSouthAmerica.ThisisnotpossibleinAsiaandAfrica,wheretherearetoomanyindigenouspeopleandtheyhavebeenhighlydeveloped.However,inNorthandSouthAmericaandOceania,especiallyinAustralia,EuropeanstransplantedWesterncapitalistcivilizationfromallaspects—ethnic,economic,andcultural.
TheindustrialrevolutionislargelyresponsibleforthisEuropeanization.ProductivitygrowthandadvancesinmedicineledtoadramaticincreaseinthepopulationofEuropeinthe19thcentury.Theresultingpopulationpressureistofindawayoutthroughoverseasmigration.Railroadsandsteamshipseffectivelytransportedlargenumbersofpeopleacrosstheoceansandcontinents,andethnicpersecutionfurtherpromotedmigration;inthe15yearsbeforeWorldWarI,1.5millionJewsfledfromRussiaineasternEuropetotheNorthAmericancontinent.Aprimeexampleofthis.Thecombinationofthesefactorshasledtounprecedentedlarge-scalemigration.Everypast10years,thetrendofpopulationmigrationhasincreasedtremendously.Inthe1820s,atotalof145,000peopleleftEurope.Inthe1850s,about2.6millionpeopleleftEurope.Between1900and1910,thenumberofimmigrantswasashighas9million,ornearly100peryear.Millionimmigrants.
Before1885,mostimmigrantscamefromNorthernandWesternEurope;afterthat,mostimmigrantscamefromSouthernEurope,EasternEuropeandSoutheastEurope.Generallyspeaking,BritishimmigrantsgotothedominionsoftheBritishEmpireandtheUnitedStates;ItaliansgototheUnitedStatesandLatinAmerica;SpanishandPortuguesegotoLatinAmerica;GermansgototheUnitedStates,andasmallnumberofthemgotoArgentinaandBrazil.Fromthepointofviewofworldhistory,thesignificanceofthisextremelyhugemigrationliesinthefactthat,exceptfortheinfluxofalargepartofpeopleintotheAsianandRussianregionsandasmallnumberofpeopleslowlyflowingintoSouthAfrica,thegoalofmigrationiscompletelyfacingtheAmericasandOceania.Asaresult,NorthAmericaandAustraliaarealmostcompletelyEuropeanintermsofrace.AlthoughtheIndiansofSouthAmericamanagedtosurvive,onlyafewsurvived.Inotherwords,thecolonialbranchoftheperiodbefore1763hasbecomeanumberofnewEuropesidebysidewiththeoldEuropeduringthe19thcentury.
SouthandNorthAmericaandAustraliaareEuropeanizednotonlyethnically,butalsoeconomically.Before1763,theEuropeancoloniesonthesecontinentsweremainlyrestrictedtothecoastalareas.Butinthenextcentury,themainlandwastraversed.Theindustrialrevolutionmadeitpossibletoinvadebylandbyprovidingthenecessarymachineryandtechnology.Iftherearenoroadsleadingtotheinlandfromthecoast,nocanalsconnectingrivers,norailroadsandtelegraphsacrossthecontinent,nosteamboatstoandfromlargeriversandcoastalwaterways,noagriculturalmachinerythatcanmowingthegrasslands,andnoconqueringoftheindigenouspeoples.It’simpossibletoconquerthewilderness.ThesemechanicaldevicesusedtoconquerthevastareasofthecontinentareindispensabletoLatinAmericansandAustraliansastheyaretotheinhabitantsoftheAmericanfrontiers.Forexample,anArgentinewroteanarticlein1878:“ThemilitarypoweroftheIndianbarbarianswascompletelydestroyed,becauseRemingtonhadmadethemrealizethatanarmycouldcrosstheentireSouthAmericanprairieandmakethegroundcoveredwithit.Thecorpsesofpeoplewhodaredtoopposeit."
ThecolonizationandeconomicdevelopmentoftheNewWorldnaturallyledtothetransplantationofEuropeanculture.Itistruethattheculturechangesduringthetransplantationprocess.Cultureisnotonlyadoptedbutalsochanged.Today,Canada,Australia,andtheUnitedStatesarenotexactlythesameasGreatBritain,andLatinAmericaisnotanexactreplicaoftheIberianPeninsula.However,thefactremainsthatthelanguageisbasicallythesame,althoughAmericanslangfascinatestheBritishandtheoldFrenchCanadiandialectmakestheFrenchcurious.Thereligionisthesame,althoughtherearecampfirerevivalsandMormonbelievers.Literature,schools,newspapers,polity-allofwhichhaverootsthatcanbetracedbacktoBritain,Spain,FranceandotherEuropeancountries.
Ofcourse,therearesomeculturesthatdidnotoriginateinEuropeinNorthandSouthAmericaandAustralia.TheblacksofAmericaretainedcertainremnantsoftheirAfricanbackground.Thesurvivingindigenouspeoples,especiallytheIndiansinLatinAmerica,contributedtoamixedculture.Peopleshouldnotforgettheinfluenceofthewilderness;itleftanindeliblemarkonEuropeanimmigrantsandtheircustoms.AlltheseforcesexplainwhyNewYork,Melbourne,andDulunduoaresodifferentfromLondon,andwhyBuenosAires,Brasilia,andMexicoCityaresodifferentfromMadrid.
However,fromaglobalperspective,therearemoresimilaritiesthandifferences.DuringtheexpansionwestwardfromtheirhometownsintheMiddleEast,theArabnationsexpandedacrossNorthAfricatotheAtlanticcoast.Today,theMoroccancultureisdifferentfromthecultureoftheArabianPeninsula,farmorethantheAmericancultureisdifferentfromtheBritishcultureortheBraziliancultureisdifferentfromthePortugueseculture.However,MoroccoisnowseenaspartoftheArabworld,andundoubtedly,itthinksso.Inthesamesense,NorthandSouthAmericaandAustraliaarenowpartoftheEuropeanworld.
NewimperialismconqueredthenewempireandtheindustrialrevolutionwasnotonlythemainreasonfortheEuropeanizationofAmericaandAustralia,butalsothemainreasonwhyEurope'shugecolonialstructurewasestablishedinAsiaandAfrica.Theconstructionofthisempirewassteadilycarriedoutinthedecadesfollowingtheemergenceofahugecolonialsettlementin1763.Indeed,intheearly19thcentury,therewasalotofanti-imperialistsentimentincertaingroupsinBritainandFrance.Proponentsoffreetradebelievedthatcolonieshadonlyminimaleconomicvalue,andBritain’sexperiencewith13coloniesseemedtoprovideevidencefortheiropinions.However,thefactremainsthatBritainandFrancecontinuedtoacquireterritoriesduringthosedecades.Forexample,BritainacquiredtheCapeColonyandCeylonin1815,NewZealandin1840,HongKongin1842,andNatalin1843.Similarly,FranceconqueredAlgeriafrom1830to1847,andexpeditiontoIndochinafrom1858to1867.Inaddition,in1862,ittriedtogainafootholdinMexicowithoutsuccess.However,thesegainsareinsignificantcomparedwiththehugewaveofempirebuildingafter1870;after1870,"newimperialism"madealargepartofthesurfaceoftheearthanappendageofafewpowerfulEuropeanpowers.
Colonycanbeusedasamarketforanincreasingnumberofmanufacturedgoods;fromthegrowingdesiretoacquirecolonies,wecanseethecloseconnectionbetweennewimperialismandtheindustrialrevolution.SeveralEuropeancountriesandoverseascountriesthatbegantoindustrializeinthe19thcenturyquicklycompetedwitheachotherformarkets,andintheprocess,increasedtheirtariffstoboycottothercountries’products.Soonitwasarguedthateveryindustrializedcountryshouldhaveacolonythatcanprovideitsmanufacturerswitha"marketfreefromforeigncompetition."In1898,U.S.RepublicanSenatorAlbertBeveridgegavearepresentativeexplanationofthisviewtoagroupofbusinessmeninBoston:
AmericanfactoriesaremanufacturingmorethantheAmericanpeoplecanMorethingsarebeingused;AmericanlandisproducingmorethingsthantheAmericanpeoplecanconsume.Fatehassetourpoliciesforus;worldtradeshouldandmustbelongtous.Therefore,wewillgetworldtradeasourhomecountry(Britain)toldus.WewillestablishtradingpostsallovertheworldasdistributionpointsforAmericanproducts.Wewillsendourmerchantfleetacrosstheocean.Wewillbuildatrulygreatnavy.Ahugecolonythatisautonomous,thathangsourflagandcommunicateswithus,willgrowaroundourtradingposts.
Theindustrialrevolutionalsoproducedsurpluscapital,andsurpluscapitalcausedthepowerstolookforcoloniesasadestinationfortheirinvestment.Themorecapitalaccumulatesathome,thelowertheprofit,andthegreatertheneedformoreprofitableinvestmentmarketsabroad.Infact,thepowerfulcountries,especiallyBritain,FranceandGermany,haveinvestedheavilyinforeigncountries.Forexample,theUnitedKingdom,by1914,hadinvested4billionpoundsabroad,whichwasequivalenttoaquarterofitsnationalwealth.Atthattime,Francehadalsoinvested45billionfrancsabroad,aboutone-sixthofitsnationalwealth.AlthoughGermanyisalatecomer,ithasalwaysusedmostofitscapitalfordomesticindustrialdevelopment,butithasalsoinvested22billionto25billionmarksoverseas,whichisaboutone-fifteenthofitsnationalwealth.Thus,by1914,Europehadbecomethebankeroftheworld.Inthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury,mostoftheseoverseasinvestmentswereinNorthandSouthAmericaandAustralia—inthewhiteworld.However,inthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,mostoftheseoverseasinvestmentswereinnon-white,relativelyunstablecountriesinAsiaandAfrica.Thousandsofsmallprivatesaversandsomelargefinancialorganizationsthatprovidecapitalarenaturallyworriedaboutthesafetyoftheircapital.Theywouldratherhavea"civilized"administrativemanagementintheareawheretheyinvest,andthismanagementisbestcarriedoutbytheirrespectivegovernments.Inthisway,theneedtoinvestsurpluscapitalpromotesnewimperialism.
Theoriginofnewimperialismisnotentirelyeconomic;itisnotonlyrelatedtotheindustrialrevolution.Atthattime,therewereotherfactorsatwork.OnefactoristhedesiretoobtainstrategicnavalbasessuchasthoseinMaltaandSingaporetostrengthennationalsecurity.Anotherfactoristheneedtoobtainanothersourceofmanpower,astheFrenchdidinNorthAfrica.Anotherfactoristheinfluenceofmissionaries,whowereparticularlyactiveinthe19thcentury.Thesemissionarieshavebeentryingtoconvertthenatives,andtheyaresometimesabusedandevenkilledbythenatives.Althoughmissionariesthemselvesmaybewillingtotoleratesuchdangersforthesakeoftheirowncareers,andthinktheyareacceptable,publicopinionoftencallsforcounterattacks.Therefore,thegovernmentknowsthatsuchincidentscanbeusedasanexcuseformilitaryintervention.Finally,thepopularityofsocialDarwinismanditsdoctrinesofstruggleforsurvivalandsurvivalofthefittestnaturallyledtothenotionofracialsuperiorityandthenotionthatwhitepeoplehavethe"responsibility"torulethe"inferior"colorednationsintheworld.CecilRhodes,theoutstandingempirefounder,wasveryfrankonthisissue.
Thefinalresultoftheseeconomic,political,andpsychologicalfactorsisthelargestlandgrabinthehistoryoftheworld.ThiskindoflandgrabandeventheconquestofGenghisKhancannotbecomparedwithitof.Duringthe30yearsfrom1871to1900,Britainincreaseditsempire’slandby4.25millionsquaremilesanditspopulationby66million,Franceincreaseditslandby3.5millionsquaremilesanditspopulationby26million,andRussiaincreaseditsempireby5millionsquaremiles.Landandapopulationof6.5million,Germanyhasadded500,000squaremilesoflandandapopulationof13million.EvenatinyBelgiummanagedtoacquire900,000squaremilesoflandand8.5millioninhabitants.Theseconqueredlands,combinedwiththeoriginalcolonies,producedastrangeandunprecedentedsituation:asmallpartoftheworldruledtherest.
TheindustrializedEuropeanpowersnotonlycompletelyownthesehugecolonies.Italsocontrolledthoseeconomicallyandmilitaryweakareasthatwerenotactuallycompatibleforvariousreasons.ChinainthelateQingDynasty,theformerfeudaltheocraticempireacrossEurope,AsiaandAfrica-theOttomanEmpireandPersiaontheIranianplateauinAsiaareexamples;theyareallindependentcountriesinname,butinreality,theyareoftenplunderedandhumiliated.,Subjecttodirectandindirectcontrolbycapitalistpowersinvariousways.LatinAmericaisalsoaneconomicappendageofthepowers,butinthisregion,EuropeanmilitaryoperationshavesufferedsetbacksduetoMonroeDoctrine.However,theMonroeDoctrinedoesnothindertherepeatedarmedinterventionoftheUSMarineCorpsto"restoringlawandorder."TheRussianEmpirewasalsolargelycontrolledbyWesternEurope’seconomy,butatthesametime,themilitarypoweroftheTsaristregimewasverypowerful,enoughtopreventexternaleconomicinfluencefromspreadingtootherareas.
Asaresult,weseethatEurope’scontrolnotonlyextendstoitsvastempire,butalsoextendstothesamevastancillaryareas.Infact,moreEuropeancapitalwasinvestedinthesubjectcountriesthaninthecolonies.Theseinvestmentsarethroughvariousmeansandpoliticalandeconomicpressures-suchasmilitarydelegationsthattrainlocaltroops,financialdelegationsthatsuperviseandusuallycontrollocalfinances,andgrantspecialprivilegestoEuropeanslivingintheseareasordoingbusinessintheseareas.Extraterritorialityandvariousarrangementsrelatedtoextraterritoriality-andareprotected.Ifnecessary,thereisalwaystheAmericanMarineCorpsortheEasternHemispheregunboatsasalastresort.
Detailsabouttherelationshipbetweenthepowersandvariouscoloniesanddependentterritorieswillbeexaminedinthefollowingchapters.Thepurposehereisonlytodescribethegeneralpatternoftheserelationships.Thispatternclearlyshowsthatby1914,mostoftheearth'ssurfaceandmostoftheworld'spopulationhadbeendirectlyorindirectlycontrolledbyafewEuropeancountries,aswellasRussiaandtheUnitedStates.Thisdevelopmentisunprecedentedinhumanhistory.Today,inthemiddleofanothercentury,muchoftheworld’schaosisaninevitableresponsetothisEuropeanhegemony.
TheinfluenceofnewimperialismWhyshouldthegreatexpansionofEuropeinthelate19thcenturybecallednewimperialism?Afterall,imperialismisnothingnew.Ifimperialismisdefinedas"thedirectorindirectpoliticaloreconomicdominationorcontrolofacountry,nationornationoverothersimilargroups",thenimperialismisasoldashumancivilization.Undoubtedly,theRomanswereimperialistbecausetheyconqueredmostofEuropeandtheNearEastandruledthoseareasforcenturies.Moreover,beforeandaftertheRomans,manyotherempiresaroundtheworldwereconqueredbyvariousnations.
However,theterm"newimperialism"makessense,becausethisEuropeanexpansioninthelate19thcenturywascompletelyunprecedentedintermsofitsimpactoncoloniesanddependentterritories.AlthoughRomesimplyanddirectlyexploiteditscoloniesbyplunderingandcollectingtributesmainlyintheformoffood,itsexploitationdidnotparticularlyaffecttheeconomiclifeandstructureofthecolonies.Thecolonycontinuedtoproducealmostthesamefoodandhandicraftsinthesamewayasinthepast.Comparingthiskindofimperialismwiththekindofimperialismthatlaterinvadedandtransformedentirecontinentsislikecomparingashovelwithasteamexcavator.Traditionalimperialismincludesexploitation,butdoesnotincludefundamentaleconomicandsocialchanges.Thetributeisonlyattributedtoonerulinggroupandnottoanother.Incontrast,thenewimperialismforcestheconqueredcountriestoundergoradicalchanges.Thisisnotsomuchadeliberatepolicy,asitisthevibrantindustrialismofWesternEuropeandthestatic,self-sufficientagriculturalregimesofAfricaandAsia.Theinevitableimpact.Inotherwords,Europeanindustrialcapitalismistoocomplexandexpansionist,anditcannotbesaidtobeasimpletributerelationshipwiththecolonies.
Atthebeginning,theEuropeanconquistadorscertainlydidnothesitatetoplunderandlevytribute.TheBritishdidthisinIndia,justastheSpaniardsdidearlierinMexicoandPeru.However,afterthisinitialstage,thevibranteconomyofEuropebegantoencircleandchangetheeconomicstructureandsocialstructureofthecoloniesinvariousways.Thishappensbecause,aswealreadyknow,industrializedEuropeneedssourcesofrawmaterialsandmarketsforitssurpluscapitalandmanufacturedgoods.Forexample,BritainusedshipstotransportlargeamountsoftextilesandcapitaltoIndia,andcapitalwasmainlyusedtobuildrailways.By1890,Indiahadpavedabout17,000milesofrailway,roughlyequivalenttotheBritishrailwaynetwork.However,from1890to1911,India'srailnetworkapproximatelydoubledto33,000miles,whileduringthissameperiod,theBritishrailnetworkonlyincreasedbyalittleover300miles.
ItshouldbepointedoutthatrailwaysandotherlargeprojectssuchasirrigationprojectsandportfacilitiesareexchangedforBritishcapital.Inotherwords,Indiadoesnothavetowaituntilithasaccumulatedenoughcapitaltodevelopitseconomyandincreaseitsexports.Therefore,inthisearlystage,India'seconomicdevelopmentwaspromotedbyitslinkswithBritain.However,theimportantpointisthatIndia’seconomyhasnotonlybeenpromoted,ithasalsobeenrebuiltandrenderedineffectiveinthelatterstage.Britain’stextilesweresocheapthattheycouldbedistributedacrossthecountrythroughtherailwaynetwork,thusruthlesslybankruptingindigenouscraftsmen,justastheybankruptedBritishcraftsmenacenturyearlier.However,thereisanextremelyimportantdifferencebetweenthesetwosituations.Britishcraftsmenwenttoworkinfactoriesthathadsprungupincities,butIndiancraftsmenhadnowheretogobecausetherewerenofactoriesintheircities.TheBritishnaturallydidnotwanttoestablishacompetitiveindustrialstructureinIndia.
Thisisanaturalandunderstandablearrangement,butithasdeeplyaffectedtheIndianpeople.Theyusedtomakealivingthroughagricultureandhandicrafts.Atthistime,craftsmenmustcutpricestograbbusinesswithcompetitors,andthereisnoalternativesourceoflivelihood.Farmerscannothelpbutbeaffected,becausemanyofthemhavebecomeinvolvedintheproductionofjuteandothercommoditiesfortheBritishfactories.Thismeansthattheyarenolongerjusttosupportthemselvesandpeopleinnearbytowns.Atthistime,theyhavebecomeanintegralpartoftheworldeconomy,dominatedbyworldeconomicfluctuationsandcrises.EuropehasalsofundamentallyaffectedIndiathroughtheintroductionofmedicalscienceandvarioussanitarymeasures.ThissituationhasoccurredearlierinEuropebecauseoftherapidincreaseinthepopulationcausedbymedicalandsanitarymeasures.However,millionsofpeopleinEuropehaveenteredcitiesorwenttocities.Overseas,butIndianscan’tdothat.Therefore,theendresultispopulationgrowthandeconomicdevelopmenthindered.
Thisisthenatureoftheinfluenceofnewimperialismoncoloniesanddependentterritories.Indiahasbeenusedasanexampleofthisinfluence,butinotherregions,thegeneralpatternisthesame,butnaturallywithsomelocalchanges.Thispatternshouldberememberedbecauseitexplainswhytheworldtodayisdividedintoadevelopedworldandanunderdevelopedworld,whythelivingstandardsofthesetwoworldsaresodifferent,andwhypeopleintheunderdevelopedworldhavegainedpoliticalindependenceaftertheygainedpoliticalindependence.,Itsprimarygoalistobecomeadevelopedworld-reachingtheeconomicleveloftheWestasquicklyaspossible.
Areviewofthenewimperialismshouldnotleadtotheconclusionthatthenewimperialismisacompletedisasterfortheworldandevenforthesubordinatecolonialnations.Accordingtothehistoricalpointofview,thenewimperialismwillundoubtedlyberegardedasagreatprogressintheworld,justastheindustrialrevolutionisagreatprogressfortheEuropeans.Infact,thehistoricalroleofnewimperialismistoadvancetheindustrialrevolutiontoitslogicallyinevitableoutcome-enablingindustrialcountries,thatis,industrialcapitalismtofunctiononaworldwidescale.Thishasledtoafar-wide,coordinatedandeffectiveuseoftheworld'smaterialandhumanresources.Undoubtedly,whenEuropeancapitalandtechnologyarecombinedwithrawmaterialsandlaborinunderdevelopedregionstoleadtoacompleteworldeconomyforthefirsttime,worldproductivityhasincreasedimmeasurably.Infact,worldindustrialproductiontripledbetween1860and1890,andincreasedsevenfoldbetween1860and1913.Thevalueofworldtraderosefrom641millionpoundsin1851to3,024millionpoundsin1880,4,045millionpoundsin1900,and7,84millionpoundsin1913.
Peoplehavenodifferentopinionsonthebenefitsofincreasingthevolumeofthecake.Moreprecisely,thecontroversyfocusedonthequestionofhowtocutthecake.Thecolonialnationshavefeltthatinthepast,theyreceivedlessthantheirshare.Thetotalamounttheyreceivehasincreasedsignificantly;otherwise,theirgrowingpopulationcannotbesupported.Forexample,aBritisheconomistpointedoutthatin1949,Europeancompaniesengagedinmininginthemineral-richNorthRhodesiasoldtheirproductsforatotalof86.7millionpounds.Ofthissum,theyspentonly£12.5millioninNorthRhodesia;thismeansthattwo-thirdsofthemoneyistransferredabroad.Moreover,ofthe£12.5millionspentinNorthRhodesia,£4.1millionwaspaidtoEuropeanslivingandworkingthere.Ofthe36.7millionpounds,only2millionpoundsweregiventoAfricansworkinginthemines.However,theseworkersearnanaverageof41poundsayear,whiletheaverageincomeofeachadultAfricaninthecolonyis27poundsayear.
Obviously,thereisasimilaritybetweenthereactionofWesternworkerstoindustrialcapitalismandthereactionofcolonialnationstonewimperialism.Botharedissatisfiedwiththeirowndestiny,andbothsupportmovementsaimedatcausingfundamentalchange.However,thereisanotherbasicdifference:thecolonialnationsarenotopposedtotheirownemperors,butratheropposedtoforeignrulers.Therefore,atleastintheinitialstage,theiroppositionmovementisnotsocialism,butaseriesofWesternpoliticaldoctrines—liberalism,democracy,andespeciallynationalism.
Theindustrialrevolutionisdifferentfromthetechnologicalrevolution.Itcanreferto:
Thefirstindustrialrevolutionwasmarkedbytheimprovementofthesteamengine,andthesecondindustrialrevolutionwasmarkedbythewidespreadapplicationofelectricity.Thethirdtechnologicalrevolutionwasmarkedbytheinventionanduseofelectroniccomputers.