Earlydevelopment
Origin
Late19thcenturytoearly20thcentury
Theabilitytorecordsoundisoftenlinkedtotheproductionofelectronicmusic.Butitisnotabsolutelynecessary.Theearliestsoundrecordingdevicewasarecorder(phonautograph)patentedin1857bytheFrenchmanÉdouard-LéonScottdeMartinville(Édouard-LéonScottdeMartinville).Itcanrecordsoundontheoutside,butitcannotbeplayedback.
In1876,engineerElishaGray(ElishaGray)publishedapatentforanelectromechanicaloscillator.This"musictelegraph"evolvedfromhisexperimentsintelephonetechnologyandhisearlysurvivingpatentsforelectronicsoundproduction.ThisoscillatorwasextendedbyAlexanderGrahamBellforearlytelephones.In1878,ThomasAlvaEdisonfurtherdevelopedaphonographfromthisoscillator,similartoScottrade’sdevice,usingpistons.Althoughthepistoncontinuedtobeusedforsometime,in1887EmileBellinadevelopedadisc-shapedphonograph.LeeDeForest'sinventionin1906-the3-polevacuumtubefollowedbyelectronicmusichasprofoundeffects.Itwasthefirstthermoelectronvalveorvacuumtube,whichcausedthecircuittocreateandamplifymusicsignals,broadcastbroadcasts,calculatevalues,andperformvariousotherfunctions.
Beforeelectronicmusic,composershadincreasingexpectationsforusingtechnologytocreateemergingmusic.Someinstrumentsuseelectro-mechanicaldesigntocreateandspreadtheriseofelectronicmusicalinstruments.AnelectromechanicalinstrumentcalledtheteletypeorganwasdevelopedbyTadiceCahillfrom1898to1912.However,theinconveniencecausedbyitshugesizepreventsitfrombeingwidelyadopted.OneofthemostfrequentlymentionedearlyelectronicmusicalinstrumentsisThereman,inventedbyProfessorLeonTheremanfrom1919to1920,whichuseshandstocontrolradiowavestoproducesound.OtherearlyelectronicinstrumentsincludethetriodevacuumtubepianoinventedbyLeeDeForestin1915;thecrosssounderinventedbyNicolaiObkoffin1926;andtheFrenchMauriceMattin1926TheMatenowasinventedbytheFrenchcomposerOliverMeixianginthewell-knownsymphonyoflove,andinhislaterworks.MatenowasalsousedbyothermajorFrenchcomposerssuchasAndréJolivet.
In1907,oneyearaftertheinventionofthetriodevacuumtube,ItalianpianistandcomposerFelucioBusonipublished"SketchofaNewEstheticofMusic"(DescriptionofNewEstheticofMusic).Music),discussestheapplicationofelectronicandothernewsoundsourcesinfuturemusic.Hewrotethatinthefuture,thefine-tunedscaleofmusicmayberealizedbyCahill’stelexdevice:“Onlylong-termandcarefulseriesofexperimentsandcontinuouseartrainingcanbeusedinthefuturegenerationsofart.,Makingthisunfamiliarmaterialreachableandmoldable."
Busonialsostatedin"DescriptionoftheNewBeautyofMusic":
Musicasanart,WhichiswhatweoftencallWesternmusic,hasalmost400yearsofancienthistory;itisstillinastateofdevelopment,whichmaybetheinitialdevelopmentbeyondthepresentconcept,butwhenwetalkabout"classical"and"sacredtradition",thereisalreadyIt'sbeenalongtime!
Wehaveformulaicrules,specifiedprinciples,andstrictlyissueorders;...Weusetheserulestonurturechildrenwhoknownothing!
Suchayoungchildisenoughtomakepeoplerealizethathehasadazzlingtrait,whichmakeshimclearlysurpassallsisters.Therule-makerswillnotseethisextraordinarycharacteristic,lesttheirrulesarethrownintothewind.Thechildisfloatingintheair!It'snottouchingthegroundwithyourfeet,andyoudon'tknowthelawofuniversalgravitation,soit'salmostinvisible.Itsmaterialistransparent,itistheairthatcanmakenoise,itisalmostnatureitself.Itis-free!
However,freedomissomethingthathumanbeingshaveneverfullyrealized,andhaveneverbeenfullyrealized.Theyalsofailedtoidentifyorrecognize.
Theydenythechild'smission;theyputpressureonhim.Thisenergeticguymustwalkdecently,justlikeeveryoneelse.Hemayhardlybeallowedtojump-buthewillhappilyfollowthetrajectoryoftherainbowandusethecloudstocutthroughthesun'srays.
Throughthisworkandpersonaldirectcontact,Busonihasdeeplyinfluencedmanymusiciansandcomposers.PerhapshismostfamousdiscipleEdgarVarezsaid:
Wediscusstogetherwhatkindofmusicdirectiontheworldwillhaveinthefuture,andevenwhetheritshouldcontinuetobeconstrainedbythetuningsystem.He(Busoni)lamentedthathisownkeyboardinstrumentshaveadjustedourearstoacceptonlyaverysmallpartoftheinfinitenumberofvoicesinnature.Hewasveryinterestedintheelectronicmusicalinstrumentswejustlearnedabout.WhatIrememberveryclearlywaswhenhereadthetelexorgan.Throughhisvariousworks,wecanfindthatpredictionsforfuturemusichavecometruetimeandtimeagain.Infact,thereisalmostnodevelopmentthathehasnotpredicted,suchasthisextremelyunusualprediction:"Ialmostthinkthatinthisnewgreatmusic,themachinewillalsobecomenecessaryandwillbeassignedacertainroleinit.Perhaps,industrytoo,willoccupyacertainpositioninthepromotionoftheartisticrealm."
InItaly,futuristicartistsuseanotherangletoachievechangesinmusicaesthetics.Oneofthemainbeliefsinthephilosophyoffuturisticartistsistocherish"noise"andtoputinthevalueofsoundartandperformancethathasnotbeenconsideredbefore,evenalittlefarawayfrommusicality.Inhisbook"TechnicalManifestoforFutureMusic"(1911),BarillaPratrastatedthattheircreedis:"Showtheartisticsoulofpeople,largefactories,railways,Atlanticpassengerships,battleships,carsandairplanes.Addingthekingdomofvictoryofmachinesandelectronicstothegreatcentralthemeofmusicalepic."
OnMarch11,1913,futuristicartistLuigiRousseaupublishedhismanifesto"TheArtofNoise".OnApril21,1914,heheldthefirst"ArtofNoise"concertinMilan.Amongthem,hischantingsound(Intonarumori)isused,accordingtoRoussolohimself,itisaninstrument,whosesounds(roars,howls,turmoil,gurgling,etc...)areactivatedbyhumanhandsandprojectedthroughspeakersandmicrophones."InJune,heheldseveralsimilarconcertsinParis.
FirstDevelopmentPeriod
1920sto1930s;thisdecadebroughtalotofearlyelectronicsMusicalinstruments,andthefirstuseofelectronicmusicalinstrumentstocompose.ThefirstelectronicmusicalinstrumentiscalledtheEtherophone,whichwasborninLeningbyLeonTremen(bornLevTremen)from1919to1920ItwascreatedbyLe,andlaterrenamedasThereman.Itledthefirstcompositionforelectronicmusicalinstruments,incontrasttothemakeranditsderivativeequipment.In1929,JosephSchillingerwroteTheTheremanand"FirstAirphonicSuiteforThereminandOrchestra"(FirstAirphonicSuiteforThereminandOrchestra),premieredintheClevelandOrchestraandperformedbyLeonThereminassoloist.
ExceptforThereminandOrchestra.
ExceptforTheremin,ThematernowasinventedbyMauriceMaternoin1928andmadehisfirstappearanceinParis.
Musicalinstrumentcomposition,appliedtohisunfinishedopera"Mr.Bloom"(Mr.Bloom).
Theinventionofrecordingequipmentmadeelectronicmusichavealeap-forwardevolution.In1927,theAmericaninventorJ·A.O'Neill(JAO'Neill)developedarecordingdevicebycoatingalayerofmagneticsubstanceonthesurfaceofrubber,butitfailedcommercially.Twoyearslater,LawrenceHanmendevelopedanelectronicmusicalinstrumentHeestablishedhisowncompany.HecontinuedtomanufactureHanmen-styleelectricorgans,whichwerebasedonTheremen’sprinciplesandaccompaniedbyotherinventionsincludingearlyreverberationdevices.HanmenandJohnHanert,C·CNWilliamscontinuedtocooperateinthedevelopmentofotherelectronicmusicalinstruments.Forexample,theNovaHarmonywasmanufacturedbyHanmen'scompanybetween1939and1942.
UsedforopticalsoundrecordinginfilmartThemethodmakesvisualvisualizationofsoundpossible,andinaddition,italsorealizestheotherside—fromaman-madesound.Duringthesameperiod,auditoryartexperimentsbegan.EarlyparticipantsincludedTristanCharaandKurtHeeWaiters,FilippoTomassoMarinetti,andothers.
SecondDevelopmentPeriod
Fromthe1940stothe1950s,low-fidelitymagneticsteelwirerecordingsbeganapproximatelyin1900Itbegantouse.Bytheearly1930s,thefilmindustrybegantoswitchtoanewopticalsound-accompanyingfilmrecordingsystemdevelopedbasedonphotocells.Aboutthesameperiod,theGermanelectronicscompanyAEGdevelopedthefirstpracticalaudiotapesystem"Magneticsoundmachine""K-1,andwaspublishedattheBerlinInternationalBroadcastingShowinAugust1935.Tapesaremoreflexibleinrecordingtechnologythanrecords.Theycanbere-recordedandedited.Sincethen,tapeshavebeenwidelyusedinradios.BroadcastandMoviewithsound.
DuringWorldWarII,WalterWeber(WalterWeber)rediscoveredandappliedACbiastechnology,whichdramaticallyimprovedmagneticpropertiesbyaddinganinaudibleshortBoeingThefidelityoftherecording.ItextendedtheK4magnetophonefrom1941to10000Hz,andincreasedthedynamicrangeto60dB,surpassingallknownrecordingsystemsatthetime.
Asearlyas1942,AEGhadalreadytestedstereorecording.However,thesedevicesandtechnologieswerekeptsecretfromoutsideGermanyuntiltheendofWorldWarII,whenthecapturedmagneto-audiorecorderandseveralrollsofironoxidetapesproducedbyFabenCompanywerebroughtbacktotheUnitedStatesbyJackMullinandothers.Later,onthebasisofthesetaperecordersandtapes,AmpexdevelopedthefirstcommercializedprofessionaltaperecorderModel200madeintheUnitedStates,andreceivedthesupportofartistPingCrosby,andhealsobecamethefirstbatchofgenerals.Oneoftheartistswhocopiedradioprogramsandprofessionalstudiorecordingsontapes.
Magnetictapeshaveopenedupavastspaceformusicians,composers,producers,andengineersintermsofsoundperformance.Thetapeisrelativelycheapandveryreliable,anditsreproductionfidelityisbetterthananysoundpreservationmediumatthetime.Moreimportantly,itprovidesoperationalflexibilitylikeamoviefilm,ratherthanrigidlikearecord.Itcanbephysicallyeditedalmostlikeamoviefilm,allowingunnecessarypassagesintherecordingtobeseamlesslyremovedorreplaced;similarly,passagesfromothersourcesofaudiotapecanbeedited.Audiotapescanalsobecombinedintoanendlessloopeffect,thatis,thepreviouslyrecordedmaterialisplayedrepeatedly.Audioamplifiersandmixingequipmentcanfurtherexpandtheperformancecapabilitiesoftapes,allowingmultiplepre-recordingofvarioussounds(livesounds,speechesormusic),andthenmixingandrecordingtoothertapesatthesametime,withonlyaslightfidelityloss.Theotherunexpectedgainisthattherecordercanberelativelysimplymodifiedintoanechomachinetoproducecomplexandcontrollablehigh-qualityechoandreverbeffects(mostofwhichcannotbeachievedmechanically).
Theproliferationofaudiotapeseventuallyledtothedevelopmentofelectronicacoustictapemusic.ThefirstknownexamplewascomposedbyHalimEl-Dabain1944,whenhewasastudentinCairo,Egypt.HeusedaheavywiretaperecordertorecordtheancienttraditionoftheSaarceremony,andusedthemixing,echo,voltagecontrolandre-recordingprocessintherecordingstudiooftheMiddleEastRadioStation.Theresultwasnamed"TheExpressionofZaar"(TheExpressionofZaar)andwasperformedinanartgalleryinCairoin1944.AlthoughhispreliminaryexperimentsbasedontapesdidnotspreadoutsideofEgypt,El-DabaisstillknownforhislaterelectronicmusicworkscreatedattheColumbia-PrincetonElectronicMusicCenterinthelate1950s.
Maincategories
Frenchspecificmusic
Notlongago,composersinParisalsobegantouserecordingstodevelopanewcompositiontechniquecalledspecificmusic.Thistechnologyinvolveseditingtogetherpre-recordedclipsofnatureandindustrialsounds.ThefirstspecificpieceofmusicinPariswascomposedbyPierreSchiff,wholatercollaboratedwithPierreHenry.
OnOctober5,1948,theFrenchBroadcastingCorporation(RDF)broadcastthecomposerPierreSchiff’swork"Etudeauxcheminsdefer"(Etudeauxcheminsdefer).ThisisthefirstmovementofCinqétudesdebruits(Cinqétudesdebruits),markingthebeginningoftheactualizationoftherecordingstudioandspecificmusic(orauditoryart).XueFeiusesalatheforcuttingdiscs,fourrecordingtransponders,afour-channelmixer,filters,anechochamber,andasetofportablerecordingequipment.Soonthereafter,HenrybegantocollaboratewithXueFei,andthispartnershipmayhaveaprofoundandlastingimpactonthedirectionofelectronicmusic.AnotherpartnerofXueFei,EdgarVarez,begantocompose"Desert",aworkforchamberorchestrasandtapes.PartsofthetapewereproducedinthestudioofPierreSchiff,andlaterrevisedatColumbiaUniversity.
In1950,XueFeiheldthefirstpublicconcert(non-broadcast)ofspecificmusicattheEcoleNormaledesMusicinParis."XueFeiusesapublicbroadcastingsystem,severalrecordingbroadcastersandmixers.Thisperformanceisnotgoodenough,becausethemethodofusingrecordingbroadcasterstocreatealivecomprehensiveperformancehasneverbeendone."Laterinthesameyear,Piye·HenryandXueFeico-createdthefirstmajorworkofspecificmusic,"Symphoniepourunhommeseul"(Symphoniepourunhommeseul).In1951,duetothetrendoftheworld,RTF(formerlyRDFmergedwithTVbusiness)establishedthefirstrecordingstudioforelectronicmusicproductioninParis.Alsoin1951,XueFeiandHenrycreatedanopera"Orpheus"(Orpheus,thefamousharpplayerinGreekmythology)forspecificmusicandvocals.
Germanelectronicmusic
KarlheinzStockhausenworkedbrieflyinSchiff’sstudioin1952,andthenspentmanyyearsrecordingatWDRinCologneTheroomisengagedinelectronicmusicwork.
In1953,NWDRofficiallysetuparadiorecordingstudioinCologne,whichlaterbecamethemostfamouselectronicmusicrecordingstudiointheworld.Infact,thestudiostartedpreparationsasearlyas1950,andproducedworksandbroadcastedthemin1951.ThelaboratoryisthecrystallizationofthewisdomofWienerMeyer-Eppler,RobertBeyer,HerberEmmert(hebecamethefirsteditor)andothers,andsoonjoinedtheKarlHaiInzStockhausenandGottfriedMichaelKoenig.MeyerEplerinferredtheconceptofcompletemusicinhisthesisin1949;inthisregard,electronicmusicinGermanyisclearlydistinguishedfromspecificmusicinFrance,becausespecificmusicusesactualsoundasitssource..
“BecauseofthepresenceofStockhausenandKahl,therecordingstudiohasbecomeanavant-gardebasecampwithasteadystreamofvisitorsthroughouttheyear.”ThisisacombinationoftwoelectronicsProducedsoundsandtraditionalorchestraworks-"Mixed"(1964)and"Hymn,thethirddistrictandtheorchestra"(1967)afterthepublicationoftheevaluation.Stockhausensaidthathisaudiencerespondedthathiselectronicmusicgavetheman"outerspace"experience,thefeelingofflying,orthefeelingofbeingina"fantasydream."Recently,StockhausenswitchedtoproducingelectronicmusicinhisprivaterecordingstudioinKürten,andhislatestworkiscalled"PulsationoftheUniverse"(2007)inthemedia.
Japaneseelectronicmusic
WhentheearlyelectronicmusicalinstrumentssuchasMateno,TremenandTrauutwerestillveryfewinJapanbeforeWorldWarIISomecomposersatthetime,suchasShibataNanxiong,alreadyknewtheseinstrumentswhentheywereknown.Severalyearsaftertheendofthewar,Japanesemusiciansbeganexperimentingwithelectronicmusic;underthesponsorshipofsomeorganizations,composerswereabletousethelatestsoundrecordingandprocessingequipment.TheseeffortsshowtheintegrationofAsianmusicandemergingtrends,andfinallypavedthewayforJapantobecomethemasterofmusictechnologydevelopmentdecadeslater.
WiththeestablishmentoftheelectronicscompanySony(thenknownasTokyoTelecommunicationsIndustryCo.,Ltd.)in1946,twoJapanesecomposersToruTakemitsuandNanoShibataeachwroteaboutelectronictechnologymakingmusicinthelate1940s.Ofpossibleapplications.In1948,ToruTakemitsuconceivedanewtechnologythatcould"combinenoiseandcoordinatedmusicalmelodyinasmall,crowdedtube."ThisisquitesimilartothespecificmusicalconceptofPierSchaefferinthesameyear..Atthattime,Takemitsu'sideawasnotnoticed,anditlastedforseveralyears.In1949,ShibataNanxiongproposed"ahigh-performancemusicalinstrument"thatcan"synthesizeanytype"andis"veryeasytooperate".Hepredictedthatwiththisinstrument,"themusicalsituationwillhaveabreakthroughchange."Inthesameyear,SonydevelopedthetaperecorderG-Type,whichbecamethemostpopularrecordingdeviceincourtsandgovernmentagencies.ItalsoledtothereleaseoftheH-Typehomeversionin1951.
In1950,agroupofmusiciansjointlyestablishedthe"ExperimentalWorkshop"electronicmusicstudio,usingSonytaperecorderstomakeexperimentalelectronicmusic.ParticipatingmusiciansincludeToruTakemitsu,KunharuAkiyamaandJoeYuasa.Sonysponsoredthestudiotogivemusiciansaccesstothelatestaudiotechnology,andalsohiredToruTakemitsutocreatetapemusictoshowcaseitstaperecorderandholdconcerts.Theearliestelectronictapemusicworksproducedbythegroupare"TheBoundWoman"(Japanese:Prisonわれの女)and"PieceB"(PieceB),completedbyAkiyamaKunharuin1951.Manyoftheirelectro-acousticmusictapeworksareoftenusedinradio,filmandtheatersoundtracks.Theyalsoheldsomeconcerts,suchasthe"ExperimentalWorkshop,FifthShow"in1953,whichusedanautomaticprojectionmachinedevelopedbySonytosynchronizetheprojectiondisplaywiththeoriginalsoundrecordedonthetape.Aspossible;theyusedthesamedevicetomakeanaudiotapeofthisconcertinSony'sstudio.Thisconcertwasaccompaniedbytheirexperimentalelectronicacoustictapemusic,whichwaslikeapreparationfortheintroductionofspecificmusictoJapanlaterthatyear.Inadditiontotheexperimentalworkshop,severalcomposerssuchasAkutagawaYasushi,TominagaSaburo,andFukaiShiroalsoexperimentedwithmakingradiosoundeffectstapemusicfrom1952to1953.
JapanintroducedspecificmusicthroughDaiminLang,whoparticipatedinXueFei'sconcertinParisin1952.AfterreturningtoJapan,heexperimentallyproducedashorttapemusicworkforthe1952comedy"Carmeninnocent",andproduced"X,Y,Zarespecificmusic",whichwasbroadcastbyJapaneseculturein1953(JOQR)Radiobroadcast.DaiminLangalsoproducedanotherspecificmusicalpieceforMishimaYukio’s1954radiodrama"Boxing".However,XueFei'sFrenchconceptof"soundobjects"didnotaffectJapanesecomposers.Instead,itwastheirmaininterest-musictechnology,which,asDaiminLangsaid,overcomesthelimitationsof"humanperformancematerialandscope".ThishasledsomeJapaneseelectroacousticmusicianstouseserialismandtwelve-tonetechniquesintheirworks.ExamplesincludeYoshiroIrino’s1951twelve-tonesystemwork"Camera'sConcert"(Italian:ConcertodaCamera),andDaiToshiro's"X,Y,andZareSpecificMusic"followedbyShibataNanxiong's1956electronicmusicwork.
UndertheguidanceoftheCologneRecordingStudioestablishedin1953,Japan’sNHKCompanyalsoestablishedinTokyoin1954the“NHKRecordingStudio”,oneoftheworld’sleadinginstitutionsforelectronicmusic,equippedwithtonegenerationandaudioProcessingequipment,recordingandacousto-opticequipment,maternos,singlestringinstrumentsandmelodicchordgenerators,oscillators,taperecorders,ringingtuners,band-passfilters,and4-channeland8-channelmixers.ThemusiciansassociatedwiththerecordingstudioincludeDaiMinro,ShibataNanxiong,YuasaJōji,IchiyanagiHui,andTakemitsuToru.Thefirstbatchofelectronicmusicworksintherecordingstudiowascompletedin1955,includingthe5-minuteseriesofworksproducedbyDaiMinLangusingvarioustonegeneratingequipmentintherecordingstudio:"Study1:MusicintheProportionofPrimeNumbers"and"CoordinationintheProportionofPrimeNumbers"WaveMusic",andShibataNanxiong’s20-minutestereowork"SpecificMusicforStereoBroadcasting".
Inthefieldofelectronicmusicalinstrumentmanufacturing,TieIkutaroestablisheda"LadderWatchShop"repairworkshopinthelate1940s,specializinginrepairingwatchesandradios;laterin1954,"LadderWireless"wasestablished.Itdevelopedintoaleadingelectronicindustrycompanyspecializinginthemanufactureofelectronicmusicequipmentin1960,andbecameLeLanCompanyin1972.TieIkutarostartedmakingelectronicmusicalinstrumentsin1955,withthegoalofcreatingadevicethatcanproducemonophonicmelody.Inthelate1950s,hemadeThereman,Multnoandelectronicorgans,andin1959madeHawaiianguitaramplifiersandelectronicorgans.
Americanelectronicmusic
IntheUnitedStates,electronicmusicwascreatedasearlyas1939,whenJohnCagepublished"ImaginaryLandscapeNo.1",usingtwoAturntableofaturntable,awavelengthrecorder,asilentpiano,andachopper.From1942to1952,Cagecreatedfourotherworksinthe"ImaginaryLandscape"series,allofwhichcontainedelectronicelements.In1951,MortonFeldman,wholatercollaboratedwithCage,createdaworkcalled"EdgeCrossing",whichwasveryattractivewithwind,brass,percussion,stringedinstruments,twooscillatorsandComposedwithpowerfulsoundeffects,andmatchedwithFeldman'sillustrations.
The"TapeMusicProject"wascreatedbymembersoftheNewYorkSchool(JohnCage,EarlBrown,ChristianWolfe,DavidDeTuoandMortonFieldMann)wascreatedandmaintainedfor3years,until1954.Cagewroteforthiscollaboration:“Inthisdarksociety,however,theworksofEarlBrown,MortonFeldman,andChristianWolfecontinuetoshowthelightofwisdomandprovidesomeperspectives.Commenting,performingandauditioning,thisactionisexciting."
Cagecompleted"WilliamsRemix"in1953,whenhewasworkingforthe"TapeMusicProject".Thisgrouphasnofixedorganizationandmustrelyonborrowingtimeslotsfromcommercialsoundrecordingstudios,includingtherecordingstudiosofBeibeiandLouisVeron.
Columbia
Columbia-PrincetonCenter
Inthesameyear,ColumbiaUniversitypurchasedthefirsttaperecorderforconcertrecording——AsetofprofessionalAmpexmachines.VladimirYusachevskywasinchargeoftheinstallationintheMusicDepartmentofColumbiaUniversityandbeganexperimentingwithitalmostimmediately.
HerbertRusscol(HerbertRusscol)wrote:"Soonhewasfascinatedbythisself-achievingsound,byrecordingthesoundoftheinstrumentandthenoverlappingthemwitheachother"."Yusachevskysaidafterwards:"Iunexpectedlyrealizedthatthetaperecordercanberegardedasaninstrumentforsoundtransformation."May8,1952,intheMcMillinTheateratColumbiaUniversity,YussaChevespresentedseveralkindsoftapemusicandthesoundeffectsheproducedinthecomposersforumhefounded.Thisexhibitionincludesreverberations,experiments,combinations,andunderwaterwaltz.Inaninterview,hesaid:"InapublicconcertinNewYork,IpresentedsomeexamplesIfound,alongwiththemusicIusedtocomposefortraditionalinstruments."OttoLuningparticipatedinthisconcert,Herecorded:"TheequipmentheconfiguredincludesanAmpextaperecorder...andasimplebox-shapeddevicedesignedbytheyoungtalentedengineerPeterMauzeytocreateamechanicalechoform.Feedbackeffect.Otherequipmentwasborrowedorpurchasedwithpersonalfunds."
Justthreemonthslater,inAugust1952,YusachevskywenttoLunin’sinvitation.Bennington,Vermontpresentshisexperiment.There,thetwocollaboratedtocreateavarietyofworks.LuNingdescribedtheincident:"Withheadphonesandaflute,Istartedmyfirsttaperecordercomposition.Wearebothskilledimprovisers,andthismediumignitedourimagination."Someearlyworkswereperformedataninformalparty,where"agroupofcomposersverycarefullycongratulatedusandsaid:'Thisisthis'('this'referstothemusicofthefuture)."
ThenewssoonreachedNewYorkCity.OliverDanielcalledandinvitedthetwoto"SponsoredbytheAmericanComposersLeagueandRadioMusicCompany,directedbyLeopoldStokowski,OctoberMusicattheMuseumofModernArtinNewYorkWillcreatesomeshortworks.Afterawhile,weagreed...HenryCowellarrangedhishomeandrecordingstudioinWoodstock,NewYorkforouruse.WeuseYusachevskyWiththeborrowedequipmentinthetrunkofthecar,heleftBenningtonforWoodstockandstayedtherefortwoweeks...AttheendofSeptember1952,themobilelaboratoryarrivedatYusachevsky’sAroominNewYork,wherewefinallyfinishedtheseworks."
Twomonthslater,onOctober28,VladimirYusachevskyandOttoLuninlaunchedtheUnitedStatesThefirstconcertwithtapemusic.TherepertoireoftheconcertincludesLuNing's"FantasyinSpace"(1952)-"amasterpieceofimpressionism"recordedwithaskilledflute.BothworkswerecreatedatHenryCowell'shomeinWoodstock,NewYork.AfterseveralsensationalconcertsinNewYork,YusachevskyandLuningwereinvitedtoNBC's"TodayShow"liveprogramforinterviewsandpresentations-thiswasthefirstelectronicsoundperformancebroadcastontelevision.Luningdescribedtheincident:"Iperformedsome(flute)seriesfortaperecordersonthespot,andYusachevskyelectronicallyconvertedthemonthespot."
1954Witnessedtheemergenceofrealelectronicplusacousticworksfromtoday’sperspective.Threeimportantworkswerepremieredthatyear:Varez’s"Desert"wascomposedforthechamberorchestrawithtapesound;theothertwowereworksbyLuninandYusachevsky:"FortheLouisvilleSymphonyOrchestra"Variationsof"Rhapsody"and"AnEpicofLoopsandBells"werecomposedbysymphonyorchestrasandtapes.AsaresultofworkinginXueFei'srecordingstudio,theaudiotapepartofVarez'sworkcontainsmorespecificsoundsthanelectronicsounds.
"Desert"premieredinParisandwasbroadcastinstereobyRadioFrance.ThepremiereinHamburg,Germany,wasconductedbyBrunoMadner,andKarlheinzStockhausenoperatedthetapecontrol.Thetitleofthework"Desert"wasrecommendedtoValaisbyothers,anditsmeaningisnotonly"allphysicaldeserts(includingsand,sea,snow,outerspaceoremptystreets),butalsotheinnerdesertofhumanbeings;notonlythosethathavebeenstrippedTorecognizethatthenaked,detached,andeternalsideofnatureisalsoaremoteinnerspacethatcanbereachedwithoutatelescope,wherepeoplearelonely,amysteriousworldandnecessarilylonely."
1958Columbia-PrincetondevelopedtheRCAMark2voicesynthesizer,thefirstprogrammablesynthesizer.ExcellentcomposerssuchasVladimirYusachevsky,OttoLunin,MiltonBabbitt,CharlesVorinin,HalimEl-Daba,BrandtARielandMarioDavidowskiusedRCAsynthesizersextensivelyindifferentworks.HalimEl-DabaofEgyptwasoneofthemostinfluentialcomposersintheearlyrecordingstudios.Afterdevelopingtheearliestwell-knownelectronictapemusicin1944,hewasalsoinspiredby"LeilaandPoetry"(LeiylaandthePoet)andbecomemorefamous.Itwasaseriesofelectronicsynthesisworksfrom1959,whichinsistedonthedeepandseamlessintegrationofelectronicsandfolkmusic.ThiswasinsharpcontrastwiththemoremathematicalapproachofserialistcomposerslikeBabbittatthattime.El-Daba’s"ReylaandPoetry"wasreleasedaspartofthealbum"Columbia-PrincetonElectronicMusicCenter"in1961.Itwascitedanddeeplyinfluencedbyagroupofmusicians,rangingfromNeilRonnickandCharles·AmercanianandAliceShelztorockmusicianFrankZappaandWestBundPopArtExperimentalBand.
RandomMusic
Animportantnewdevelopmentistheemergenceofcomputersandusedtocreatemusic,ratherthanmanipulatingorcreatingsounds.IannisZenakispioneeredso-calledrandommusic(French:musiquestochastique),whichisamethodofcompositionusingmathematicalprobabilitysystems.Zenakisusedthecomputertocomposemusic,including"ST/4"writtenforthe4thStringensemble,"ST/48"writtenfortheorchestra(bothcompletedin1962),"Mosima-WorkssuchasMorsima-Amorsima,ST/10andAtrées.HedevelopedtheUPICcomputersystemtoconvertimagestoincorporatemusicalresults,andcreated"MycènesAlpha"(MycènesAlpha,1978)withit.
Mid-stagedevelopment
Mid-to-late1950s
In1954,Stockhausencreatedhis"Research2"-thefirstElectronicmusicworkspublishedintheformofsheetmusic.In1955,moreexperimentalelectronicrecordingstudiosbegantoappear.MorenoteworthyarethecreationoftheMilanRadioAcousticMusicStudio,theNHKStudioestablishedbyDaiminLanginTokyo,andthePhilipsStudioinEindhoven,theNetherlands,whichmovedtoUtrechtUniversityin1960andbecameSonorakiInstitute.
Thesoundtrackforthe1956movie"ForbiddenPlanet"wascomposedbyLouisandBebePeronandmadeentirelyofcustomizedelectroniccircuitsandtaperecorders.
Theworld'sfirstcomputerforplayingmusicisCSIRAC,designedandmanufacturedbyTrevorPierceandMastonBeard.MathematicianGeoffHill(GeoffHill)hasbeenwritingprogramsforCSIRACsincetheearly1950stoplaypopularmusicmelodies.In1951,itpubliclyplayedthe"BogeyColonelMarch"(thethemesongofthemovie"TheBridgeoftheRiverKwai"),butnorecordingfileshavebeenpreserved.However,CSIRACisonlyusedtoperformstandardrepertoire,nottoextendmusicalideasorcompositionpractice.CSIRAChasneverbeenrecorded,butthewaythemusicisplayedhasindeedbeenreconstructed.Theearliestrecordingofcomputer-generatedmusicwasperformedbytheFerrantiMark1computer,acommercialversionofthe"babymachine"developedbytheVictoriaUniversityofManchesterinthefallof1951.ThemusicprogramwaswrittenbyChristopherStrachey.
Theimpactcausedbycomputerscontinuedin1956.RegalenHillerandLeonardIsaacsoncomposedthe"IriacSuite"forthestringquartet,whichwasthefirstcompleteworkusingcomputer-assistedcomposition(includingcompositionalgorithms)."...Shearerassumedthatcomputerscouldbeeducatedusingspecificformsofrules,andthentheywerecalledouttowritesongs."SubsequentdevelopmentsincludedMaxMatthews'workatBellLabs,whichhedevelopedquiteabitInfluentialMUSICIprogram.In1957,MUSICbecameoneofthefirstcomputerprogramstoplayelectronicmusic.In1956,Stockhausencreated"SongofYouth",whichwasthefirstmajorworkoftheColognestudio,inspiredbyapassagefrom"TheBookofDaniel."AnimportanttechnologicaldevelopmentthatyearwastheinventionoftheClavivoxsynthesizer,createdbyRaymondScottandassembledwiththeassistanceofRobertMoog.
Alsoin1957,GideBaltan(DickRemax)andTomDiseveltreleasedtheirdebutalbum"SongOfTheSecondMoon"(SongOfTheSecondMoon),WasrecordedinthePhilipsstudio.Thepublicstillmaintainedahighdegreeofinterestinnewsoundscreatedaroundtheworld,anditlasteduntiltheperformanceofValais’work"ElectronicMusicPoetry"inthePhilipsPavilionattheBrusselsWorldExpoin1958.Theperformanceusedatotalof400speakers..Inthesameyear,theArgentinecomposerMauricioCargellwroteTransiciónII.TheworkwasproducedintheWDRrecordingstudioinCologne.Therearetwomusiciansperformingonapiano,oneinatraditionalwayandtheotheronsteelstrings,framesandboxes.Inaddition,twoperformersusedtaperecorderstointegratelivesoundandpre-preparedrecordingsofpastperformances.
Comprehensivedevelopment
Inthe1960s,thiswasaprolificeraofelectronicmusic-notonlyinacademia,butalsoindependentartists,becausesynthesizertechnologybecameeasieroperate.Duringthisperiod,astrongcommunityofcomposersandmusiciansestablishedandthrived,dedicatedtocreatingnewsoundsandnewinstruments.In1960,hewitnessedLuNing's"Gargoyles"forviolinandtapes,andthepremiereofStockhausen's"Contact"forelectronicsound,pianoandpercussioninstruments.Therearetwoversionsofthework-oneisa4-channelaudiotape;theotherisatapeofcrowdperformances."In"Contact",Stockhausenabandonedthetraditionalmusicstylebasedonlineardevelopmentanddramaticclimax.Hecalledthisnewmethoda'momentform',similartothefilmeditingtechnologydevelopedintheearly20thcentury."
ThefirstsynthesizerofthiskindwasBukira,whichappearedin1963andwasapioneerproductofthespecificmusiccomposerMortonSubnik.
TheTheremanhasbeenusedsincethe1920s,butithasgainedhighpopularityfromtheoriginalsoundtrackmusicusedinsciencefictionmoviesinthe1950s(forexample,BernardHerman’s"TheEarthStops""TheDayofTurning"classiccomposition).
IntheUnitedKingdomduringthisperiod,theBBCBroadcastingStudio(establishedin1958)graduallybecamethemostproductiveandwell-knownelectronicmusicrecordingstudiointheworld,thankstotheircontributiontotheBBCsciencefictionseries"Doctor"madealotofcontributions.OneofthemostinfluentialBritishelectronicartistsatthetimewasthestudio’semployeeDahliaDeBisha.Shewasfamousforpracticingelectronicmusicasthesymbolicthemesongof"Dr.Greinercomposesthemusic.
In1961,JosephTharestablishedthe"IsraeliElectronicMusicCenter"attheHebrewUniversity,andin1962HughLeKanearrivedinJerusalemandinstalledhis"innovativetaperecorder"Here.Laterinthe1990s,TalandDr.ShlomoMarkel(Dr.ShlomoMarkel)ledacollaborativeresearchproject(Talmark)withtheTechnion-IsraelInstituteofTechnologyandVolkswagenStiftung(VolkswagenStiftung)todevelopasetofelectronicsMusicscoresystem.
MiltonBabbittusedasynthesizertocreatehisfirstelectronicwork-"ComposingfortheSynthesizer"(1961),usingtheRCAsynthesisattheColumbia-PrincetonElectronicMusicCenterintheprocessDevice.
ForBabbitt,therearethreereasonswhyhethinksthatRCAsynthesizerhasachievedhisdream.First,theabilitytopreciselycontroleverymusicalelement.Second,itoriginallytooktimetopracticeandelaboratecreation,butnowitcanbeachievedinasimpleandpracticalway.Third,thequestionisnolonger"whatisthelimitofhumanperformers?"but"whatisthelimitofhumanhearing?"
Somecooperationcasesalsospanoceansandcontinents.In1961,YusachevskyinvitedVareztotheColumbia-PrincetonRecordingStudio(CPEMC).Uponarrival,Varezproceededtoworkonarevisedversionofthework"Desert",assistedbyMarioDavidowskiandBillenAriel.
TheenthusiasticactivitiesthattookplaceinCPEMCandotherplacesinspiredMortonSabonick,andin1963hejoinedPaulineOlivero,RamonSenderandAnthonySender.Martin(AnthonyMartin),TerryRileyandothersco-foundedtheSanFranciscoRibbonMusicCenter.Inthework"RainbowintheCurvedAtmosphere"(1967),whichwasaddedtotheoriginaltape,Rileyusedavarietyofelectronickeyboardinstruments,allimprovisedbythecomposer.
Afterthat,thecentermovedtoMillsCollege,underthedirectionofPaulineOlivero,andisnowcalledthe"ContemporaryMusicCenter."
InthesameperiodinSanFrancisco,composerStanShaffandequipmentdesignerDougMcEacherndeliveredthefirst"Audium"atSanFranciscoStateCollegeTheconcert(1962),followedbyanotherwork(1963)createdattheSanFranciscoMuseumofModernArt(SFMOMA),canbeimaginedasaninstantaneouscontroloftheflowofsoundinthespace.Atotalof12speakerssurroundtheaudience,andanother4speakersareinstalledinarotating,seeminglymovablestructureabove.InaperformanceatSFMOMAthefollowingyear(1964),themusiccriticAlfredFrankensteinofthe"SanFranciscoChronicle"commented:"Thepossibilityofacontinuumofstereosoundisrare.Exploreitextensively".In1967,thefirstAudiumTheater,the"StereoSoundContinuum",opened,andheldweeklyperformancesuntil1970.In1975,anewAudiiumtheaterwasfundedbytheNationalArtFund,whichwasdesignedforstereosoundcreationandperformancefromfloortoceiling."Incontrast,somecomposersusemultiplespeakersinstalledintheperformancespacetoswitchorfiltereachsoundsourcetomanipulatestereosound.Inthismethod,thecompositionofthespaceoperationdependsonthepositionofeachspeaker,usuallyusingTheacousticpropertiesofthefield.ExamplesincludeValais’work"ElectronicPoetry"(tapemusicperformedatthePhilipsPavilionattheBrusselsWorldExpositionin1958)andStanleySchaff(sic)stillaliveinSanFrancisco’sAudiiumFacilities."Throughaweeklyfixedprogram(morethan4,500showsin40years),Schaff’s"sculpture"sound,through176speakers,performsnowdigitalthree-dimensionalworks.
Awell-knownusecaseforthefull-sizeMoogtunedsynthesizerisWendyCarlos's"ElectricalBaja"album,whichtriggeredtheenthusiasmforsynthesizermusic.
PitroGrossiisapioneerofcomputercompositionandtapemusicinItaly.Hefirstexperimentedwithelectronictechnologyintheearly1960s.Grossiwasonceacelloplayerandcomposer,borninVenicein1917.HeestablishedtheFlorencePhonologicalMusicStudio(Italian:StudiodeFonologiaMusicalediFirenze,abbreviatedS2FM)in1963toexperimentwithelectronicsoundandcomposition.
ComputerMusic
CSIRACwasthefirstcomputertoperformmusic,anditwasperformedpubliclyasearlyasAugust1951.Thefirstlarge-scalepublicdisplayofcomputermusicwasapre-recordedradioprogrambroadcastonthenationalprogram"Surveillance"ontheNBCradionetworkonFebruary10,1962.In1961,RafaStewartusedIowaStateUniversity’sCYCLONEcomputer(aderivativeofILLIAC)towriteaprogramandperformsimpleandrecognizablemelodythroughaloudspeakerconnectedtothesystem.TheoriginalpurposewasManagementanddiagnosticpurposes.DuringaninterviewwithMr.Stewart,hiscomputermusicwasplaying.Inthelate1950s,1960s,and1970s,thedevelopmentofmainframesynthesizerscanalsobeseen.Beginningin1957,MaxMatthewsofBellLabsdevelopedtheMUSICprogram,whicheventuallyreachedMUSICV,whichisadirectdigitalsynthesizerlanguage.
LiveElectronics
IntheUnitedStates,thepioneersofliveelectronicswereMiltonCohen'sSpaceTheaterinAnnArbor,Michiganintheearly1960s.MemberssuchasGordon·MummahandRobertAshley,independentproducerssuchasDavidDedo,whoinvestedincirca1965,andbyGordonMummah,RobertAshley,AlvinRussell,andDavidBellTheSoundArtAllianceestablishedbyManetal.in1966.In1960,JohnCagecreated"CartridgeMusic",oneoftheearliestliveelectronicworks.
In1964inEurope,KarlheinzStockhausencreated"MicrophoneNo.1"forgongs,handheldmicrophones,filtersandpotentiometers,aswellasfororchestral,and"Hybrid"writtenby4ringtuners.In1965,hewrote"MicrophoneNo.2"forchoirs,Hanmenelectricorgansandringtuners.
JazzcomposersandmusiciansPaulBrayandAnnettePickacockusedtheMoogsynthesizertoperformpartofthefirstliveconcertinthelate1960s.PicokregularlyusesacustomMoogsynthesizertoprocesshervoiceonstageandinthestudio.
From1966to1967,ReidGazaladiscoveredandstartedteaching,creatingexperimentalelectronicmusicalinstruments,whichmainlyexploredtheelementsofsoundintimbreandlessinrhythmormelody,andwasinfluencedbyJohn·InfluencedbyCage'scasualmusicconcept.
Heyday
Synthesizer
1970stoearly1980s:MoogMusicCompanyreleasedtheMiniMoogin1970,whichwasthefirstbatchthatcouldbewidelyusedOneofthemostaccessible,portableandrelativelyaffordablesynthesizers.Itbecamethemostwidelyusedsynthesizerinpopularandelectronicartmusic.PatrickGleasonandHerbieHancockusedittobroadcastlivemusictogetherinthe1970sandbecamepioneersintheuseofsynthesizersinconcerttours,buttheywerealsoduetotheimperfectfunctionaldesignoftheearlymachines.Feelthepressure.
In1974,theEMSSynthi100synthesizerwasacquiredintheWestGermanRadio(WDR)recordingstudioinCologne,andmanycomposersusedittocreatefamouselectronicmusicworks-includingRulfGihar"FiveGermanDances"(FünfdeutscheTänze,1975),KarlheinzStockhausen’s"Sirius"(1975-76)andJohnMagall’s"PulseMusicNo.3"(PulseMusicIII,1978).
Intheearly1980s,peoplesawtheriseofbasssynthesizers.ThemostinfluentialonewasLeLanTB-303.Itwasabasssynthesizerandsequencer,publishedinlate1981,andlaterbecameanecessaryequipmentforelectronicdancemusic,especiallythepsychedelichouse.OneofthefirstuserswasCharangitSinghin1982,butitwasnotpopularatthetime.Itwasnotuntil1987thattheFutureOrchestralaunched"PsychedelicSoundtrack".
IRCAM,STEIMandEMS
IRCAM,locatedinParis,France,hasbecomeamajorcenterofcomputermusicresearchandpractice,andhasdevelopedtheSorgitek4XcomputerSystem,andfeaturesrevolutionaryreal-timedigitalsignalprocessing.PierreBlitz’s"Response"(1981)waswrittenfor24musiciansand6soloists,using4Xconversionandarrangingthesoloistsonaspeakersystem.
STEIMisanewmusicalinstrumentresearchanddevelopmentcenterinthefieldofelectronicperformingarts,locatedinAmsterdam,theNetherlands.STEIMhasexistedsince1969.ItiscomposedofMichaelManherberger,LouisAnderson,PeterSchatter,DickRemax,JeanvanFreman,ReinbertDiLeighEstablishedtogetherwithConradBirmer.ThisgroupofDutchcomposersisstrivingtoreformtheclosedmusicenvironmentinAmsterdam;theyfirmlysupporttheappointmentofBrunoMadinaasthemusicdirectoroftheRoyalCityHallOrchestra,andconductthefirstpublicsolicitationforexperimentalandimprovisedelectronicmusicintheNetherlands.Capital.
ThepredecessoroftheElectronicMusicResearchInstitute(EMS)is"SwedishElectroacousticMusic",whichisthenationalcenterofelectronicmusicandsoundartinSweden.TheresearchorganizationwasfoundedinStockholmin1964.
Popularelectronicmusic
Inthelate1960s,popandrockmusicianssuchasTheBeachBoysandTheBeatlesbegantouseelectronicmusicalinstrumentssuchasTheremanandMagicPiano.Tostrengthenanddefinetheirvoices.Attheendofthese10years,MoogSynthesizerhasachievedaleadingpositionintheemergingavant-garderock,someorchestrassuchasPinkFloyd,Yes,Emerson,LakeandPalmer,andGenesisOrchestra,alluseItisusedtocreatepartofthemusic.Theinstrumentalavant-garderockisparticularlyprominentincontinentalEurope,enablingsomeorchestrassuchasthePowerPlantOrchestra,OrangeDreamOrchestra,CannedOrchestraandFaustOrchestratoavoidlanguagebarriers.The"Germanrock"styleoftheirextensiveuseofsynthesizers,alongwiththecreationofBrianIno(formerlythekeyboardplayerofRossiMusic),hadasignificantinfluenceonthelatersyntheticrock.
ElectronicrockhasalsobeenproducedbysomeJapanesemusicians,includingTomita's"ElectronicSamurai:KnowtheLatestRockandRoll"(1972),whichusesaMoogsynthesizertoplaycontemporarypopandrockSongs;andKitashimaOsamu'savant-garderockalbum"Mandala"(1974).Themid-1970switnessedtheriseofelectronicmusicians,suchasJean-MichelJarre,VanGillis,andTomita,thelatterandBrianInnohadahugeinfluenceonthedevelopmentofmusicinthenewcentury.
Afterthearrivalofpunkrock,abasicsyntheticrockstyleemerged,andmoreandmorenewdigitaltechnologieswereusedtoreplaceothermusicalinstruments.Theorchestrasthatbecamepioneersincludetheorchestrathatreleasedthesingle"HiroshimaLove"in1977,theYellowMagicOrchestrafromJapan,GaryNewman,thepopulartip,theHumanAllianceChorus,theMidnightArmyOrchestra,andthePipeArmyOrchestrafromtheUnitedKingdom.,AndtheDivorOrchestrafromtheUnitedStates.TheYellowMagicOrchestrahasmadeaspecialcontributiontothedevelopmentofsyntheticpopmusicthroughtheireponymousalbum(1978)and"SolidSurvivor"album(1979).ThedefinitionofMIDIandthedevelopmentofdigitalaudiohavemadethedevelopmentofpureelectronicsoundeasier.Thesedevelopmentsledtothegrowthofsyntheticpopmusic,whichwaslateradoptedbytheneo-romanticmovement,leadingtosynthesizersdominatingpopandrockmusicintheearly1980s.ThekeyrolesareDuranDuran,SpandiBalletChorus,SeagullOrchestra,CulturalClub,TalkTalk,JapaneseOrchestraandDanceMusicOrchestra.Syntheticpopmusicsometimesusedsynthesizerstoreplaceallotherinstrumentsuntilthisformfelloutoffavorinthepopworldinthemid-1980s.
Sequenceranddrummachine
Sequencerbegantobeusedaroundthemiddleofthe20thcentury,andTomita'salbuminthemid-1970sbecamealaterexample.In1978,theYellowMagicOrchestrausedcomputer-basedtechnologytoconnectasynthesizertoproducepopmusic,completingtheirearlyapplicationonthemicroprocessor-basedRolandMC-8microprocessorsequencer.
Thedrummachine,alsoknownastherhythmmachine,wasalsousedaroundthelate1950s.AlaterexampleisKitashimaOsa’savant-garderockalbum"Mandala"(1974),whichusesArhythmmachineaccompaniedbyelectronicdrumsandasynthesizer.In1977,"LoveinHiroshima"wasoneofthefirstsinglestouseametronome-likepercussioninstrumentLelanTR-77drummachine.In1980,LeLanCompanylaunchedtheLeLanTR-808drummachine,whichwastheearliestandmostpopularprogrammabledrummachine.ThefirstbandtouseitwastheYellowMagicOrchestrain1980,andduetothereleaseofMarvinGay’swork"SexyHealing"andAfrikaBambata’s"PlanetaryRock"in1982,themachinewaslaterwidelyused.InthelaterDetroitTechnowaveinthelate1980s,TR-808becamethebasictoolandthedrummachineofchoiceforDerekMayandJuanAtkins.
ThebirthofMIDI
In1980,agroupofmusiciansmetwithmusicmerchantstopromoteanewinterfacestandard,allowingnewinstrumentstocommunicatecontrolcommandswithotherinstrumentsandcomputers.ThisstandardiscalledMusicalInstrumentDigitalInterface(MIDI),anditistheresultofthecooperationofseveralleadingmanufacturerssuchasSequentialCircuits,Oberheim,LeLan,Yamaha,etc.LaterparticipantsalsoincludeKulgeandKawai.In1981,DaveSmithofSequentialCircuitssubmittedapapertotheAudioEngineeringSociety.TheninAugust1983,theMIDIstandardversion1.0wasfinalized.
MIDItechnologyallowsasinglekeystroke,knobaction,pedalactionorinstructionsfromamicrocomputer.Theremotestudioactivatesalldevicesandsynchronizesthemsothateachdeviceispre-determinedbythecomposerOperationingoodconditions.
MIDIinstrumentsandsoftwarecaneffectivelycontrolcomplexmusicalinstruments,andtheirpricesareeasilyaffordablebymanystudiosandindividuals.Throughmusicsamplingandsampleread-onlymemory-basedinstruments,theacousticsoundeffectscanbereconstructedintherecordingstudio.
MillerPucketdevelopedasetofgraphicalsignalprocessingsoftwarecalledMaxfor4Xcomputers(underthenameofMaxMatthews),whichwassubsequentlyintroducedintoMacintoshcomputers(byDave·DaveZicarelli(developedbyOpcodeSystems)forreal-timeMIDIcontrol,bringingthepossibilityofalgorithmiccompositiontomostcomposerswhodonothaveabackgroundincomputerprogramminglanguages.
Digitalsynthesis
In1975,theJapaneseYamahaCompanyobtainedtheauthorizationofthewavelengthmodulationsynthesizer(FWsynthesizer)algorithmbyJohnJoning.QiaoninghasbeenexperimentingwiththistechnologyatStanfordUniversitysince1971.Yamaha'sengineersadjustedhisalgorithmtomakeitsuitablefordigitalsynthesizers,addingamethodsimilarto"keyscale"toenhanceperformance.Thismethodcanbeusedtoavoidthedistortionthatusuallyoccursinthewavelengthmodulationprocessofananalogsystem.However,thefirstpubliclypublishedcommercialdigitalsynthesizershouldbeFairlightCMI(ComputerMusicalInstrument)ofFairlight,Australiain1979.Itwasthefirstpracticalmulti-tonedigitalsynthesizer/sampling.system.
In1980,YamahafinallyreleasedthefirstFMdigitalsynthesizer-YamahaGS-1,butitwasexpensive.In1983,YamahalaunchedthefirstindependentlyoperateddigitalsynthesizerDX-7,whichalsousesanFMsynthesizer,andshouldbeoneofthemostpopularsynthesizersinhistory.DX-7isfamousforitseasy-to-recognizepowerfultone.
BerryFoucaultdescribedoneofhisearlycomputersoundexperiences:
AtIRCAMinParisin1982,fluteplayerLarryBolegardehadalreadyputhimThefluteisconnectedtoDiGiugno’s4Xaudioprocessortokeepupwithitinrealtime.IntheGuggenheimPrizethatyear,Iextendedthisconcepttoreal-timefollowingcomposingbyautomaticallysynchronizedaccompaniment.Inthefollowingtwoyears,LarryandIusedthecomputerasachambermusicianandgavemanydemonstrations.IncludingplayingHandel’sflutesonata,Blaz’s"Sonata"forfluteandpiano,andmyown"SynapseII"(SynapseII)forfluteandcomputerin1984-thefirstspecialsongWorkscreatedbythiscombinationofinstallations.Amajorchallengeistofindtherightsoftwarearchitecturetosupporthighlysensitiveandvulnerableaccompaniment.TheseareallthingsbeforetheadventofMIDI.Eventhoughthehighspecificgravityoftheelasticspeedcontinuestosurprisemy"synthesizerperformer",theresultsarestillimpressive.In1985,wesolvedtheproblemofelasticspeedbyaddingthe"self-learningbyaudition"method(everytimeyouplayinthisway,themachinewillgetbetter).Wearealsotryingtheviolinbecauseouroutstandingandyoungfluteplayergotfatalcancer.Inaddition,thisversionusesanewstandardcalledMIDI,andhereIhavetheassistanceofaformerstudentMillerPuckett,wholaterextendedtheinitialconceptofthistaskintoaprogramcalledMAX.
Chipmusic
Thenewcapabilitiesoflow-costhomecomputersledtotheriseofchipmusicinthe1980sand1990s.Chipmusicismusicwritteninsoundformat.Withthesoundchipofacomputerorvideogameconsole,manysoundmaterialsaresynthesizedandsequencedinrealtime,sometimesincludingsample-basedsynthesisandlow-bitsampleplayback.Thelo-fi(low-fidelity)soundcharacteristicsofchipmusicaretheresultofthelimitationsofearlysoundcardtechnology;however,withitsownpower,thissoundhassincebecomeoneofthegoalspursued.
Theriseofdancemusic
Inthelate1980s,dancemusicrecordingsmadeusingonlyelectronicinstrumentsbecamemoreandmorepopular.Thiskindofmusichasastrongandrapidrhythmandismatchedwithelectronicsounds.Thecombination,itsmelodyhasaverynovelfeeling,andcanbemixedmultipletimes,sothateachperformanceoftheworkmaintainsaslightlydifferentuniqueness.Thistrendcontinuestothepresent,andnightclubsallovertheworldregularlyplayelectronicdancemusic.Nowadays,electronicdancemusicisverypopular,andthereareexclusiveradiostationsandTVchannels.
Progress
OtherdevelopmentsincludeToddMacphere(fromMITandIRCAM)"BeginAgainAgain"(BeginAgainAgain),whichisaplatformwithmultiplesensesAninteractivesystemformeasuringtheactionsofentities.MaxMatthewsdevelopedasetof"conductor"programsthatcanbepre-inputelectronicmusicscoresforreal-timebeat,dynamicandtimbrecontrol.Morton.SabnikreleasedamultimediaCD-ROM"AllMyHummingbirdsHaveAlibis"(AllMyHummingbirdsHaveAlibis).
2000sand2010s;inrecentyears,whencomputertechnologyhasbecomemoreaccessibleandmusicsoftwarehasprogressed,thetechnologythatinteractswithmusicproductioncannowbepractical,soitcansupporttraditionalmusicPracticalmethodsofdifferenttypesofmusicperformance:forexample,laptopperformance(laptronica).Generally,thetermlivePAspecificallyreferstoanyliveperformanceofelectronicmusic,whetheritisaccompaniedbyalaptop,synthesizer,orotherdevice.
Inthelasttenyears,somesoftware-basedvirtualrecordingstudioenvironmentshaveemerged,usingproductssuchasPropellerhead'sReasonandAbletonLivetofindpopularappeal.Thistypeofsoftwareprovidesapracticalandcost-effectivealternativetoatypicalhardware-basedcreativerecordingstudio.Thankstotheadvancementofmicroprocessortechnology,itisnowpossibletocreatehigh-qualityproductswithalittlemoreequipmentthanasinglelaptopcomputer.Qualitymusic.Thisadvancementhaspopularizedmusiccreation,leadingtoasubstantialincreaseinthenumberofelectronicmusicproducedathomeandmadeavailabletothepublicviatheInternet.
Artistscanalsopersonalizetheirworksbycreatingpersonalizedsoftwaresynthesizers,effectmodules,andvariouscompositionenvironments.Variousprofessionaldevicesthatexistedinthehardwarefieldinthepastcaneasilyhavevirtualversions.Someofthemorepopularsoftwaretoolstoachievethesegoalsarecommerciallyreleased,suchasMax/MspandReaktor;othersareopensourcesoftware,suchasCsound,PureData,SuperColliderandChucK.
Modernelectronicmusic
Itisgenerallybelievedthatmodernpopularelectronicmusic(Electropop)asauniquemusicstyle,asakindofelectronicmusic,originatedFromthelate1970stothemid-1980s:Thenewwaveofpost-punkmovementsinJapanandtheUnitedKingdom,whichhasbeenincontinuousdevelopmentafter30years.ThePetShopBoysofthe1980s(PetShopBoys)consolidatedthepositionofpopularelectronicmusicandpointedoutthefuturedirectionofelectronicmusic.Twentyyearslater,althoughelectronicmusichasexpandedintoavarietyofcomplexanddiverseforms,popularelectronicmusichasnotdiminisheditscharm,andtherearestillasteadystreamofbandsadheringtotheinherentattitudeandjoiningthisretrojourney.
Intheearly1980s,somebandsweredeeplyinfluencedbyBritishRoxymusicandDavidBowie'sstyle.Popbandshaveabsorbedtheinnovationofelectronicmusic.Initially,duetothelackofelectronicaccompanimentchangesintone,artistslikeGaryNewman,TheHumanLeague,andDepecheMode—themusicofthesebands'artistssoundedalittlebarrenandintimidating.However,thefirstchangeinsyntheticpopmusicwasthedevelopmentofdancemusicstyle.TheDuranDuranbandintegratedpopularmusic,makingpopularelectronicmusicmoreenthusiastic,morecharming,andclosertodancemusic.Soonafter,manybandsfollowedDuranDuran,althoughsomebandswerestillnotaffectedbythis,theyneverrelyonthepopularthree-minutepopularity.
Butby1984,popularelectronicmusicwasdeclareddead.Until2007,theAmericanqueenBritneySpearsmadeextensiveuseofpopularelectronicmusicelementsinhercomebackalbum"Blackout".Inthefirstweek,with290,000salesrecords,shewontheBillboardTop200AlbumschartintheUnitedStates.Runner-up,BritneySpearsbecamethefirstfemalesingertomakefiveconsecutivesoloalbumsinthetoptwoofthechart.AlthoughthisalbumisaveryseriousfailurecomparedwithBritneySpears’previousalbums,theconceptsandideasconveyedbythisalbumhavedeeplyinfluencedthecreationofelectronicmusicforlatergenerationsandkickedoffmodernpopmusic.Thegatehasepoch-makingsignificance.InNovember2008,thealbumwontheMTVEuropeanMusicAwards"AlbumoftheYear"award.In2012,thealbumenteredthealbumareaoftheAmericanRockandRollHallofFameandwasrepeatedlynamedthegreatestalbumofthe21stcenturybytopmagazinessuchasRollingStone.TheconceptitconveysisusedbypopularmusicsingerslikeLadyGaga,Ke$ha,andOwlCityasthemainstreammusicgenre,andmakespopularelectronicmusicthebestamongmanypopularmusic.