Etymology
InthepoliticalvocabularyofancientGreece,theword"politics"derivesfrom"Polis"(Polis),whichreferstoafortressorguardinthe"EpicofHomer"city.Contrastwith"demos".TheacropolisofAthens,"Acropoli",isoftenreferredtoas"Poli"bytheAthenians.The"cityarea"aroundthefortressiscalled"asto"(asto).LatergenerationsreferredtotheAcropolis,theurbanarea,andthecountrysidecollectivelyasa"Poli",whichintegratedtheland,thepeopleandtheirpoliticallifeandgaveitthemeaningof"state"or"state",whichevolvedintothenameof"citystate",withindependentandindependentpeace.Thecharacteristicsofasmallcountrywithfewpeople.
Introduction
City-statesareareascontrolledbyacityandusuallyhavesovereignty.Historicalcity-statesareusuallypartofalargerculturalcircle,suchasancientGreekcity-states(suchasAthensandSparta),Canaan’sPhoeniciancity-states(suchasTyre,Sidon),Mayancity-statesinCentralAmerica,andsilkSmallcountriesontheroad(suchasSamarkand,Bukhara)andItaliancity-states(suchasFlorence,Venice).TheChinesecity-stateintheYellowRiverBasinofEastAsia.
Therearetwoimportantcity-stateperiodsinEuropeanhistory-ancientGreekcity-statesandItaliancity-statesduringtheRenaissance.ThecurrentEuropeancivilizationoriginatedfromtheseperiods.However,thesecivilizedcity-statesusuallyonlysurviveforashorttimebecausetheirlandandstrengtharenotenoughtoresistthesurroundingforeignenemies.Inaddition,thesesmallregionalorganizationscoexistinloosegeographicalandculturalindividuals,andbecomeobstaclestotheestablishmentofastablepowerbythegreatpowers.Therefore,theymusteventuallyintegrateintothelargersocialsystemandeventhenation-state.
Currently,onlySingapore,MonacoandtheVaticanmeetthetraditionaldefinitionofacity-stateintheworld.However,Singaporestillhasapartofitsnon-urbanizedterritory,whilethemetropolitanareasoftheVaticanandMonacoarejustacontinuationofthesurroundingcities-RomeandBisore.Somesovereigncountriesalsohavecity-state-liketerritories,suchasBerlininGermany,WashingtonDCintheUnitedStatesandGibraltarintheUnitedKingdom.
City-statesphere
IntheGreekcity-state,thepublicsphereor"city-statesphere"isrepresentedbythepubliclivingspace,andthepubliclivingspaceisformedthroughthepatternofpublicbuildingsof.Atthesametime,Greekcity-statesareusuallyformedaroundacentralcity,whichistheprimaryconcentrationofpublicbuildingsinthecity-state.Accordingtotheclassificationbasedonmodernideasbyarchaeologists,themostimportantpublicbuildingsofthecity-statecanbedividedintothreecategories:oneisreligiouspublicbuildingssuchastemples,temples,altarsandpubliccemeteries;theotheristhemunicipalbuildingsofthecity-statesuchastheMunicipalPlaza,Deliberativehalls,civicassemblyvenues,courts,publicdininghalls,etc.;third,placesforcity-statesocialandculturalactivitiessuchasgymnasiums,sportsfields,wrestlinggrounds,amphitheaters,etc.Thesepublicbuildingsaremajesticandstrong,andtheyhavebecomethepermanentculturallandscapeofthecity-state.Untiltoday,morethantwothousandyearslater,manyancientGreektemples,amphitheaters,andstadiumsstillstandonthesiteofthecity-states.TheysilentlyshowtheuniquecharmofGreekculturetothepeopleoflatergenerations.Ontheotherhand,theyalsoregardtheGreekcity-statesasthemostunique.Theeye-catchingfeaturesarepermanentlysolidified.
Archaeologicalstudieshaveshownthattheemergenceofpublicbuildingsiscloselyconnectedwiththeriseofcity-states.Thetypicalarchitecturalremainsofthepre-city-stateeraarenotpublicbuildings,butthepalacesandcastlesoftheMinoanandMycenaeancivilizations.Evenreligiousbuildingsareusuallyassociatedwithroyalpalacesandappearintheformofsanctuaryortemple.Obviously,theroyalpalaceanditsattachedreligiousbuildingsaremainlyusedbymembersoftheroyalfamilyandarenotopentothepublic,sotheyarenotstrictlypublicbuildings.Inthe"darkage"afterthedestructionoftheMycenaeancivilization,large-scalebuildingsofanykindhavedisappearedfromthearchaeologicalrecord,eventhoughtherearesomemagnificentpalacesdescribedinHomer'sepic.AndeveninthedescriptionofHomer'sepic,religiousritualactivitiesareoftenadaptedtotheplace,ratherthaninafixedholyplace.
Intheearlydaysofthearchaicera,withtheriseofGreekcity-states,publicbuildingsbegantoappearalloverGreece.Archaeologicaldatashowthatatthesametimethatthebasicpoliticalinstitutionsofthecitystate,suchasthecivicassemblyandcouncil,appeared,municipalpublicbuildingssuchasthemunicipalsquare,thecivicassemblyvenue,andthemunicipalhallalsoappeared.Theearliesttempleappearedinthe8thcenturyBC,whichcoincidedwiththeriseofcity-statesintime.Duringthesameperiod,culturalpublicbuildingssuchasstadiums,gymnasiums,andwrestlinggroundsalsoappearedoneafteranother.Scholarsbelievethattheemergenceofpublicbuildingsiscloselyrelatedtotheriseofcity-states.Municipalbuildingssuchascouncilhallsandcivicassemblyvenuesare,ofcourse,adirectresultoftheriseofcity-states.Theconstructionofotherpublicbuildingssuchastemplesandstadiumsisalsoasignoftheriseofcity-states.Becauseforarelativelysmallcity-state,tobuildsuchahugebuildingrequiresjointeffortsandcollectivedecision-makingbythecity-state.
MunicipalPlaza
TheMunicipalPlazaofthecity-stateisthecenterofthecity-state’seconomicandpoliticallife.Itisthelargestbazaarwithmanyshops.Peopleregularlygatherherefromallovertoengageinbusiness.Atthesametime,itisalsoaplacewheremunicipalbuildingsareconcentrated,andaspaceforpublicandpoliticallifeinthecity-state.InancientGreek,theoriginalmeaningoftheword"municipalsquare"(êgorê)was"popularassembly",anditwasgraduallyusedtodenotethemunicipalsquare,whichitselfmeans"placeofassembly".Peopleexchangeinformationaboutcity-stateaffairsandparticipateinmunicipalcouncilsandcitizens'assemblies.OnthePlazaMayorofAthens,thereisabuildingcalled"EponymousHeroes"(EponymousHeroes),with10bronzestatuesofAthenianheroesstandingontop,representingthe10tribesofAthens.Thewallisusedasabulletinboard..Thecity-stateaffairssuchasthecitizens'assemblyareannouncedhere,andtheplansofvariouslawsarealsoannouncedhereforpeopletodiscuss,andthenvoteinthecitizens'assembly.Atthesametime,thelawsanddecreespassedbythecitizens'assemblywereengravedonstonetabletsandthenpublishedonthesquare.Attheendofthe5thcenturyBC,thecity-stateofAthensbuilttheTempleoftheMotherGodontheMunicipalSquare,calledMetroon.ItwasalsothepublicarchivesofAthens,andallthelaws,decrees,civicassembliesandresolutionsofthe500-membercouncilofthecity-state,andAllincomeandexpenditureaccountsarestoredhereforcitizenstoinquire.InSparta,thecenterofpubliclifeisthetraininggroundandpubliccafeteria.ThemaindutyofSpartancitizensistodefendthecity-state.Theyspendmostoftheirtimeonthetraininggroundsforcollectivephysicalexerciseormilitarytraining,andmealsareservedinpubliccafeterias,notathome.Allmalecitizens-includingunderageteenagers-eatinpubliccafeterias.BecauseofLekugu’slegislation,citizenswhodonotparticipateinthemealsystemwilllosetheircitizenshiprights.Inaddition,thereisalsoacommunalmealsysteminsomecity-statesinCrete.
Open-airtheater
Theopen-airtheaterisaplacefortheatricalperformancesandwatchingplays.ThedramaappearedinAthensinthe6thcenturyBC,andquicklyspreadthroughouttheGreekworld.Bytheclassicalage,theamphitheatrehadbecomeoneofthelandmarkbuildingsofthecity-state.Asaplacefortheatricalperformancesandwatchingplays,theamphitheatreisatypicalpublicspace.Inordertoenablecitizenstowatchtheatricalperformances,itsscaleisgenerallyverylarge,whichcanaccommodatethousandsorevenmorethan10,000people.TheGreatTheaterofDionysusinAthenscanaccommodateabout15,000people.However,theamphitheaterisnotjustaplacetowatchdrama,itisalsooftenusedasaspaceforpoliticalactivities.InAthens,civicassembliesaresometimesheldinthetheaterofDionysus.Moreimportantly,inouropinion,theatricalperformance,whichisentirelyaculturalactivity,iscloselyintertwinedwiththepoliticallifeofthecity-state.AttheopeningceremonyoftheannualDionysusTheatreFestival,thecity-statesofAthenswillplacethetributespaidbythealliedstatesinthecenterofthestageoftheDionysusTheatertoshowallcitizens;atthesametime,theysacrificedinthewar.Thechildrenofcitizensalsosteppedontothestageonebyone,receivingthepensionsfromthecity-state.Thedramafestivalhasalsobecomeastagetoshowcasethestrengthofthecity-stateandconductpoliticaleducationforcitizens.Ontheotherhand,eventheatricalperformanceitselfhasstrongpoliticalimplications.Fundamentallyspeaking,dramaisacivicgroupactivity.Theactorsareperformedbycitizens,andthesingingteamisalsocomposedofcitizens,andtheyareoftenusedtorepresenttheciviccollectivesofthecity-states.Theaudiencewatchingtheperformanceisthecitizensofthecitystate.Theyarenotpassiveviewers,butactiveparticipantsandjudges.Firstofall,theatricalperformanceactivitiesaredirectlyorganizedandmanagedbycitizengroups.InAthens,officialsselectedbylotteryfromamongthecitizensdeterminetherepertoiretobeperformedintheannualtheaterfestivalanddesignatewealthycitizensofAthensastheproducersoftheplays.Secondly,theatricalperformancesarestagedintheformofcompetitionsandjudgedbycitizens.Themethodistoselectjudgesfromvarioustribesandthenselectthewinners.Moreover,thecontentoftheperformanceisoftencloselyrelatedtotheinterestsofthecity-stateanditscitizengroups.Aeschylus’"ThePersians"depictstheAthenians'victoryoverthePersiansintheBattleofSalamis,andAristophanes’"Akanians"expressestheauthor’sviewsonAthensandPeloponnese.Theattitudeofwarbetweenalliances.Throughtheformoftheatricalperformances,citizengroupsconductin-depthreflectionsoncity-stateaffairsinordertoconstantlycorrectthoughtsandbehaviorsthatviolatetheprinciplesofcity-statepolitics,andfurtherclarifytheidealsofcity-statepolitics.Finally,theatricalperformancescultivatethecollectivespiritofcitizens.Citizensgatheredinthesametheaterwatchthesameperformanceandexperiencethesamefeeling.Thissameexperiencemadethemrealizethattheyareaunitedwhole,awholethatisdifferentfromthetheaterandothertheaters,andacommonemotionbreedsbetweenthem.
Sportsvenues
Sportsvenuesarealsoimportantpubliclivingspacesincity-states.AsBurkhartsaid,thespiritofcompetitionisthemostimportantspiritoftheGreeks.AthleticcompetitionisoneofthemostimportantformsfortheGreekstoexpresstheircompetitivespirit.Inadditiontothefourpan-HellenicgamesoftheOlympicGames,thePediaGames,theIsthmusGames,andtheNemeanGames,eachcity-statehasitsowngames.Thosewhowinthechampionshipatthegamesreceivegreathonorsandatthesametime.Thecity-state'sbigprize.Forexample,atthebiggestsportseventinAthens,thePan-AthenaFestival,theprizeforthejuniorsprintchampionis50cylindersofoliveoil,worthabout600drachmas.Inadditiontotheprizes,thechampionsofthePan-HellenicGameswillalsoreceiveotherrewardsfromthecity-state,suchasrewardsofmoneyandsculpturesforthem.AccordingtotheGreeks,winningincompetitionisitselfanexcellentquality(êrete).Therefore,thecitizensofthecity-statedevotealotoftimeandenergytosportstraining.InSparta,themaindutyofcitizensistoengageinmilitarytrainingandphysicalexercise.Inlinewiththisneed,everycity-statehasbuiltstadiums,gymnasiums,wrestlinggroundsandothersportsvenues,whichhavebecometheprototypeofmodernsportsvenues.ThedifferenceisthatthestadiumsoftheGreekcity-statesarealsothemainsocialplacesbetweencitizens,andareimportantpubliclivingspacesofthecity-states.Citizensnotonlyparticipateinsportstraininghere,butalsoparticipateinthesociallifeofthecity-statehere.Evenpeoplewhoarenotdirectlyinvolvedinsportstrainingoftenspendtheirtimeinthegym.Butheisnotjustabystander,moreimportantly,heisaparticipantinthepubliclifeofacity-state.
Religiousworship
InancientGreece,religiousworshipwasdifferentfromthelaterChristianity.AlthoughtheGreeksworshipedanOlympiansystem,theyhadneitherorthodoxnorabstractReligiousdoctrines,thereisnoall-encompassingBible,andreligiousworshipmainlyappearsintheformofpublicholidays.InancientGreece,thereweremanysuchreligiousfestivals.Accordingtoincompletestatistics,therearemorethan300religiousfestivalsandmorethan400godsworshipped.Inthecity-stateofAthensalone,thereare144publicreligiousfestivalsayear.Infestivals,peopleoftenholdgrandparadestogreetthegods,andthenholdsacrificeceremoniesonthealtarsoftheholyland.Thesacrificesusedinthesacrificearegenerallycattleorsheep.Inthesolemnsacrifice,asmanyashundredsofcattleandsheepareslaughtered.Afterthesacrificeceremony,allthosewhoparticipatedinthesacrificeheldasacrificemealtogetherandsharedthebeefandmuttonusedinthesacrifice.AlthoughtheGreekshaverestrictionsontheparticipantsofdifferentreligiousfestivals,onthewhole,publicreligiousfestivalsareopentoallcitizensofthecity-state,andthesacrificialmealafterthesacrificialceremonyisalsoagatheringofcitizens.
Ontheotherhand,theformofreligiousworshipinancientGreeceisalsodifferentfromancientWestAsia,Egyptandotherancientcivilizations.Generallyspeaking,thereisnoprivilegedpriestormonkclass.Religiousworshipactivitiesarenotpresidedoverbypriestswithspecializedknowledge,butdirectlypresidedoverbyofficialsappointedbythecity-state.InAthens,theofficialsresponsibleforworshippingthegodsandpresidingovertheritualsareallelectedfromthecitizens,andthetermofofficeislimitedtooneyear.Inotherwords,itisordinarycitizenswhopresideoverthesacrifices.AndfortheGreeks,communicationwiththegodsgenerallydoesnotrequirespecializedknowledge.Therefore,whenHerodotussawtheprayerspresidedoverbyaspecialwizard(Magus)inPersia,hewasverysurprised.
ItisobviousthatthereligiousworshipinGreeceisnottheprivilegeoftherulingclass,butthepublicactivityofthecity-state,whichisthecommonactivityofallcitizens.Therefore,religiouspublicspaceisindispensableforcity-statelife.OnlywhenreligiousworshipisregardedasthecommonpubliclifeofallcitizenscanweunderstandwhytheGreekcity-stateshavetoexpendsuchahugeamountofmanpowerandmaterialresourcestobuildmagnificenttemples.Generallyspeaking,thetotalpopulationofacity-stateisonlytensofthousands.Whetheritisfromahumanorfinancialperspective,itisnoteasytobuildahugetemple,anditoftentakesseveralgenerationsofpeople.Everycity-stateseemstosparenoeffort.InAcragas,locatedinwesternSicily,theremainsofatleast6templesarestillpreserved,allofwhichwerebuiltwithlocallimestone.InPosidonia(Posidonia)insouthernItaly,therearestillthreehugemarbletemplesstandingintact,aswellastheruinsofatemplethathascollapsed.Thesetwosmallandweakcity-statesplayednoimportantroleinGreekhistoryatall,andtherearefewrecordsaboutthemintheliterature.Butanyonewhohasvisitedthesemagnificenttemplesandtheirremainsontheruinsofthesetwocity-statesmaynothaveimaginedthattheyareextremelymarginalintheGreekworld.
Notonlythat,thereligiousworshipofthecity-statealsohasimportantpoliticalimplications.TheFrenchscholardePolignacpointedoutthatthereligiousworshipofthecity-stateisthecorefactorinunderstandingthepoliticalcultureofthecity-state.Hestartedhisresearchontherelationshipbetweentheriseofcity-statesandreligiousworship,andpointedoutthatreligiousworshipindeedimmediatelyledtotheformationofcity-statesduetotheconstructionoftemplesandthedefinitionofreligioussacredsites.Hebelievesthatthroughcommonreligiousworship,peoplegainasenseofselfandasenseofcollectiveidentity,whichisthemostfundamentalfoundationofacity-state.Ontheotherhand,religioussacredsitesalsodefinetheterritorialboundariesofthecity-state.InGreece,inadditiontothereligioussacredsiteslocatedinthecentralcity,therearealsosometemplesandreligioussacredsitesbuiltonthebordersofthecity-states.Thesereligioussacredsitesandthereligioussacredsitesinthecenterofthecityhaveformedakindofcorrespondence.Ontheonehand,theboundariesofthecity-stateterritoryareclearlydefinedthroughspecificreligiousworshipthatisdifferentfromothercity-states.Ontheotherhand,theboundarysacredsitesandthereligioussacredsitesinthecitycenterareclearlydefined.Formtwo-waycommunicationandinteraction.Onreligiousfestivals,theprocessionwilleitherstartfromtheholyplaceinthecenterofthecityandtraveltotheholyplaceontheborder,ormarchintheoppositedirection.Themovementofpeoplebetweenthetworeligioussacredsitesbringsthepopulationofthecity-statesoutsidethecentralcityintothecity-state’spubliclife,sothatthemembersofthecity-stateformaconsciouswhole,anditalsogivestheedgeakindofCentralposition.TheBritishscholarSourvinou-InwoodcametothesameconclusioninhisresearchontheEleusisMystery.TheEleusisMystery,locatedinthenorthwesternedgeoftheAthenianterritory,isintertwinedwiththemostcentralinstitutionsofthecity-state,forminga"city-state".AnimportantandcentralworshipcenterinChina”.