Biotechnology

Introduction

Biotechnologyreferstopeoplebasedonmodernlifesciences,combinedwithscientificprinciplesofotherbasicsciences,usingadvancedscientificandtechnologicalmeans,andreforminginaccordancewithpre-designedBiomassorprocessingbiologicalrawmaterials,technicalmethodstoproducerequiredproductsforhumansortoachieveacertainpurposeServicesprovideproducts.Therefore,biotechnologyisnotonlyanewandcomprehensivediscipline,butalsoafieldthatisdeeplydependedonandexpectedbypeople,andneedstobedevelopedandexpandedurgently.Theresearchofmodernbiotechnologyinvolvesawiderangeofaspects,anditsdevelopmentandinnovationarealsochangingwitheachpassingday.Today’sprofessionalresearchinbiologicalsciencesintegratesgeneticengineering,molecularbiology,biochemistry,genetics,cellbiology,embryology,immunology,organicchemistry,inorganicchemistry,physicalchemistry,physics,informatics,andcomputerscience.Subjecttechnology.Withthematurityanddevelopmentofsociety,thedevelopmentofbiotechnologycontinuestoexpandpeople'slives,makingpeople'sneedsmoreandmoresatisfied,andfindingsolutionstomanypracticalproblemsrelatedtopeople'slives.Thedevelopmentofbiotechnologymeansthecomprehensivedevelopmentoftechnicallevelsinvariousfieldsofhumanscience;thedegreeofdevelopmentandsafetyofbiotechnologyalsomeansthedegreeofdevelopmentofhumancivilization.

Developmentstatus

Modernbiotechnologyrepresentedbygeneticengineering,cellengineering,enzymeengineering,andfermentationengineeringhasdevelopedrapidly,andisincreasinglyaffectingandchangingpeople'sproductionandlifestyle.Theso-calledbiotechnology(Biotechnology)refersto"theuseoflivingorganisms(orbiologicalsubstances)toimproveproducts,improveplantsandanimals,orcultivatemicroorganismsforspecialpurposes."Bioengineeringisthegeneraltermforbiotechnology,whichreferstotheuseofbiochemistry,molecularbiology,microbiology,geneticsandotherprinciplesincombinationwithbiochemicalengineeringtotransformorrecreatethegeneticmaterialofdesigncells,tocultivatenewvarieties,andtouseindustrialLarge-scaleuseofexistingbiologicalsystemstomanufactureindustrialproductsthroughbiochemicalprocesses.Inshort,itistheprocessofindustrializinglivingorganisms,lifesystemsorlifeprocesses.Bioengineeringincludesgeneticengineering,cellengineering,enzymeengineering,fermentationengineering,bioelectronicengineering,bioreactors,sterilizationtechnology,andemergingproteinengineering,amongwhichgeneticengineeringisthecoreofmodernbioengineering.Geneticengineering(orgeneticengineering,generecombinationtechnology)istocutandcombinethegenesofdifferentorganismsinvitro,andconnectthemwiththeDNAofvectors(plasmids,phages,viruses),andthentransferthemintomicroorganismsorcellsforcloning,andThetransferredgeneisexpressedinthecellormicroorganismtoproducetherequiredprotein.Morethan60%ofthebiotechnologyachievementsareconcentratedinthepharmaceuticalindustryforthedevelopmentofcharacteristicnewdrugsortheimprovementoftraditionalmedicines.Thishascausedmajorchangesinthepharmaceuticalindustryandtherapiddevelopmentofbiopharmaceuticals.

Biopharmaceuticalsistheprocessofapplyingbioengineeringtechnologytothefieldofdrugmanufacturing,themostimportantofwhichisgeneticengineering.Thatis,theuseofcloningtechnologyandtissueculturetechnologytocut,insert,connectandrecombineDNAtoobtainbiomedicalproducts.Biopharmaceuticalsarebiologicallyactivatedpreparationsmadefrommicroorganisms,parasites,animaltoxins,andbiologicaltissuesasstartingmaterials,preparedbybiologicalprocessesorseparationandpurificationtechniques,andcontrolledbybiologicalandanalyticaltechniquestocontrolthequalityofintermediateproductsandfinishedproducts,Includingvaccines,vaccines,toxins,toxoids,serum,bloodproducts,immunepreparations,cytokines,antigens,monoclonalantibodiesandgeneticengineeringproducts(recombinantDNAproducts,invitrodiagnosticreagents),etc.Thebiologicaldrugsthathumanshavedevelopedandenteredtheclinicalapplicationstagecanbedividedintothreecategoriesaccordingtotheirdifferentuses:geneticengineeringdrugs,biologicalvaccinesandbiologicaldiagnosticreagents.Theseproductsareplayinganincreasinglyimportantroleindiagnosing,preventing,controllingandeveneradicatinginfectiousdiseasesandprotectinghumanhealth.

Generally,thedevelopmentofnewbiologicalproductsmustgothrough

(1)Laboratoryresearch(explorationofproductionprocessroutesandestablishmentofqualitycontrolstandards);

(2)Pre-clinicalresearch(animalexperimentsonpharmacology,toxicology,pharmacodynamics,etc.);

(3)Healthfoodsneedtoundergosafetytestsoftestedproducts;

(4)Drugsneedtogothroughfivephases:PhaseIclinicaltrials(usinghealthyvolunteerstotestthesafetyofdrugs),PhaseIIclinicaltrials(small-scaleclinicalpharmacodynamicsstudies),andPhaseIIIclinicaltrials(large-scaleclinicalpharmacodynamicsstudies).Itispossibletobeapprovedfortrialproductiononlyiftheresearchworkisdoneinthefirststage.

Thedrugmustbesubmittedforqualitystabilityandfurtherexpansionoftheclinicaltrialresultsafteroneyearoftrialproductionbeforetheformalproductionapprovalcanbedeclared.

Informationtechnology

Therelationshipbetweenbiotechnologyandinformationtechnology

Biotechnologyisbasedonlifesciences,usingbiological(orbiologicaltissue,cellAndothercomponents),thedesignandconstructionofnewsubstancesornewlineswithexpectedperformance,andthecomprehensivetechnologythatcombineswithengineeringprinciplestoprocessandproduceproductsorprovideservices.Informationtechnology(informationscience)isatechnologythatstudiestheacquisition,transmissionandprocessingofinformation.Itisacombinationofcomputertechnology,communicationtechnology,andmicroelectronicstechnology,thatis,theuseofcomputersforinformationprocessing,andtheuseofmodernelectroniccommunicationtechnologyforinformationcollectionandstorage,Processing,utilization,andrelatedproductmanufacturing,technologydevelopment,andnewdisciplinesofinformationservices.Informationtechnologyandbiotechnologyarebothhigh-tech.Thetwoarenotintheneweconomy,butarecomplementarytoeachother,andjointlypromotetherapideconomicdevelopmentofthe21stcentury.

Informationtechnologysupport

(1)Informationtechnologyprovidespowerfulcomputingtoolsforthedevelopmentofbiotechnology.Inthedevelopmentofmodernbiotechnology,computersandhigh-performancecomputingtechnologyhaveplayedahugeroleinpromoting.InthereleaseofthedraftofthehumangenomejointlydrawnbyCeleraGenetics,theSangerCenterintheUnitedKingdom,theWhiteheadInstituteintheUnitedStates,theNationalInstitutesofHealth,andtheHumanGenomeCenteroftheInstituteofGeneticsoftheChineseAcademyofSciences,manyresearchinstitutionsintheUnitedStatesparticularlyemphasizedthatThehigh-performancecomputingtechnologyprovidedbyinformationtechnologyvendorsmakesthispossible.Similarly,duringthebirthofthehumangenesketchcalledthe"LifeScienceApolloMoonLandingProject",Compaq'sAlphaserveralsoprovidedresearcherswithexcellentcomputingpower.Industryanalystssaythatbehindthisfiercegeneticdecodingraceisaraceforsupercomputingcapabilities.Atthesametime,thisracewillhelpthepublictoformageneralunderstandingofthesupercomputer'ssuperpowers.Priortothis,thesemachines,whichcostatleastmillionsofdollarsandcanrunatultra-highspeeds,havebeenunknown.Theyhavebeenusedtocontrolnuclearreactors,forecasttheweather,orplaygameswithworld-classchessmasters.Nowadays,peopleareincreasinglyawarethatsupercomputersarecrucialincreatingnewvarietiesofdrugs,curingdiseases,andultimatelyenablingustorepairhumangeneticdefects.High-performancecomputingcanmakegreatercontributionstomankind..

TheCEOofCelerasaidinaninterviewwithUSAToday:"Itisthefirsttimethathumangeneticcodesarecombinedinalinearfashion."CeleraThecompanyhastoarrangethe3.2billionbasepairsinthecorrectorder.Thischallengeisthemostsevereinthelarge-scalecalculationsithasevertried.Inordertocompletetheextremelylargeamountofdataprocessingrequiredforthishistoricproject,Celerahasused700interconnectedAlpha64-bitprocessorswithacomputingcapacityof1.3trillionfloating-pointoperationspersecond.Atthesametime,CeleraalsoadoptedCompaq'sStorageWorkssystemtocompletethemanagementofadatabasewithaspaceof50TBandanannualgrowthrateofIOTB.ThechairmanoftheboardofCompaqComputerCorporationoncesaidinaspeech:"NowItisdifficultforustoseparatetheprogressofbiotechnologyfromthedevelopmentofhigh-performancecomputing.Infact,manyfirst-classscientistsbelievethathigh-performancecomputingisthefutureofbiologyandmedicine.Inthefuture,moreandmorepowerfulfunctionsThecomputerandsoftwareofthecompanywillbeusedtocollect,store,analyze,simulateandpublishinformation.

Informationtechnologycanalsohelpstrengthenvariousdatabasemanagement,informationtransmission,retrievalandresourcesharinginthefieldofbiotechnologyEtc..Anotherhardwarethatissecondonlytogenesequencersandattractsattentioninthefieldofbiotechnologyisgenechips,anditsdevelopmentalsoreliesheavilyoninformationtechnology.Thegenefragmentsarearrangedandfixedonmicroscopeslidesorsiliconwafers,etc.Thisisthegenechip.Putthegenefragmentsonthechipandthegenefragmentsofthesampleonthegenechipreader(alsoadecipheringdevice),andthesampleinformationcanbequicklycomparedanddeciphered.ThegenesequencerisfromzeroStartwithadevicefordecipheringthegeneticinformationofasample,andthegenechipanditsreaderaredevicesthatdeciphertheinformationincomparisonwiththeexistinggeneticinformation.Inthisfield,Americancompaniesaremorefamous,butJapanesecompaniesarealsointheUnitedStates.Whilecompaniesarecooperating,theyactivelyparticipateinthedevelopmentofthisfield.

(2)Thedevelopmentofbiotechnologyrequiresthesupportofspecificsoftwaretechnology.Thedevelopmentofbiotechnologyanditsindustrywillfurtherincreasethedemandforbiotechnologysoftware.Softwaretechnologywillbecomeoneofthekeyforcessupportingthedevelopmentofbiotechnologyanditsindustry.Correspondingprofessionalsoftwareisneededinallfieldsofbiotechnologytosupport:1)Theconstructionofvariousbiotechnologydatabasesrequiressoftwarewithexcellentperformanceandrapidupdate.Technology;2)Nucleicacidlow-levelstructureanalysis,primerdesign,plasmiddrawing,sequenceanalysis,proteinlow-levelstructureanalysis,biochemicalreactionsimulation,etc.alsorequirecorrespondingsoftwareandtechnicalsupport;3)Strengtheningofbio-safetymanagementandbio-informationsafetymanagementItisinseparablefromthesupportofsoftwareanditstechnologicaldevelopment.

Informationtechnologydevelopment

(1)Biotechnologypromotesthedevelopmentofthesupercomputerindustry.WiththecompletionofvarioustasksoftheHumanGenomeProject,Thesequenceandstructuredataofnucleicacidsandproteinshasincreasedexponentially.Facedwithsuchhugeandcomplexdata,onlytheuseofcomputerstomanagedata,controlerrors,andacceleratetheanalysisprocess,sothathumanscanultimatelybenefitfromit.However,tocompletetheseprocesses,Itisnotwithinthepowerofordinarycomputers,butacomputerwithsupercomputingcapabilitiesisrequired.Therefore,thedevelopmentofbiotechnologywillputforwardhigherdemandsoninformationtechnology,therebypromotingthedevelopmentoftheinformationindustry.AmoreconvincingexampleisNovember2001Inthe"Nature"magazinepublishedonthe22nd,Israeliscientistsannouncedthedevelopmentofaminiature"biologicalcomputer"composedofDNAmoleculesandenzymemolecules.Thecomputerisonlyasbigasadropofwater,thecalculationspeedreaches1billiontimespersecond,andtheaccuracyrateis99.8%.Ofcourse,likeallnewtechnologies,somescientistsareskeptical.Theybelievethatthecomputerinthistesttubehasafatalflaw,becausethebiochemicalreactionitselfhasacertaindegreeofrandomness,theresultofthiscalculationmaynotbecompletelyaccurate;moreover,theDNAmoleculesinvolvedinthecalculationcannotcommunicateliketraditionalcomputers.,Canonly"fighteachone",notenoughtohandlesomelarge-scalecalculations.

EuropeanandAmericancountriesandJapanhavesuccessivelyestablishedbioinformaticsdatacenters,theUnitedStateshastheNationalCenterforBiotechnologyInformation(ncbi),theUnitedKingdomhastheEuropeanInstituteofBioinformatics(ebi),andJapanhasmorethan70pharmaceutical,biologicalandbiologicalinformationcenters."Bio-industryInformationCommunity"formedbyhigh-techcompanies,etc.AreportfromtheGoldman-SachsConsortiumin2001showedthateachoftheUSInternationalBusinessMachinesCorporation(ibm),sun,Compaq,andMotorolahasreachedatleast12cooperationintentionswithbiotechnologycompaniesandresearchcompanies,andatotalofMorethan140cooperationagreementscovervarioustechnicalfields,includinggenechipsandcomputersimulationofdrugeffects.

(2)Biotechnologywillfundamentallybreakthroughthephysicallimitsofcomputers.Thecomputersusedarebasedonsiliconchips.Duetothelimitationsofphysicalspace,energyconsumptionandheatdissipation,theywillinevitablyencounterdevelopmentlimits.Toachievemajorbreakthroughs,theyneedtorelyoninnovationsinnewmaterials.In2000,scientistsattheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngelesdevelopedmolecularswitchesbasedonthecharacteristicsofbiologicalmacromoleculesthatcanproduceinformationwithandwithoutinformationunderdifferentconditions.In2001,theworld'sfirstDNAcomputerthatcouldrunautomaticallycameoutandwasratedasoneofthetoptenscientificandtechnologicaladvancesintheworldthatyear.In2002,ProfessorAdlerman,apioneerinthefieldofDNAcomputerresearch,usedasimpleDNAcomputertofindtheanswertoamathematicalproblemwith24variablesand1millionpossibleresultsinanexperiment.ThedevelopmentoftheDNAcomputertookanimportantstep.step.

Theinformationindustryandthebiologicalindustryareundoubtedlyhigh-techproducts.Intheresearchoflifesciences,computerworkisalwaysindispensable.Ifyougototheresearchinstituteofgenomesequencing,alargenumberofsuperAcomputer-basedsequencercanmistakeyouforaninformationtechnologycompany.Thebiologicalindustryhasacceleratedduetothejoiningofcomputers,andtheinformationtechnologyindustryhasalsobeendevelopedandprofitableduetotheneedsoflifesciences.Usingvarioustoolsofmathematics,computerscienceandbiologytoclarifyandunderstandthebiologicalsignificancecontainedinthedataobtainedfromalargenumberofgenomestudies,biologyandinformaticsintersectandcombinetoformanewdiscipline.Thebenefitsofbioinformaticsorinformationbiologyareimmeasurable.AlargenumberofcompaniesbasedonbioinformaticshaveemergedintheUnitedStates,hopingtodigforwealthinthefieldsofgeneticengineeringdrugs,biochips,andmetabolicengineering.Thebioinformaticsindustryhasgreatpotential.Itcanbesaidthattheintegrationofbiotechnology(biotechnology)andinformationtechnology(informationtechnology)isthefutureoftheworldeconomicmarket.AttheHi-TechForumofthe3rdChinaInternationalHi-TechFairheldinShenzhen,academicianHouYunde,vicepresidentoftheChineseAcademyofEngineering,pointedoutthatthebiotechnologyindustryshouldbepositionedasakeyindustrysecondonlytotheinformationindustry.Hesaidthatinformationandbiotechnologyarekeytechnologiesrelatedtomycountry'seconomicdevelopmentandnationaldestinyinthenewcentury,andwillbecometheeconomicgrowthpointofmycountry'sinnovativeindustries.

ApplicationMajor

Manypeoplebelievethat2000istheyearofinvestmentinthebiotechnologyindustry.Thecompletionandpublicationofhumangenesequencingisanothermilestoneinthehistoryofscience,andithasmademanyinvestorsfascinatedbyit.In2000,theU.S.biotechnologyindustrystockmarketadded30billionU.S.dollars.Thisvaluegreatlyexceedsthetotalinvestmentintheindustry'sstockmarketinthepreviousfiveyears.Biotechnologystocksandothertechnologyindustrystockshaverisenabnormally.Therearemanysignsthatalthoughthebiotechnologyindustryhasahistoryoflessthan30years,itisenteringamatureperiod.

In2001,whentheUSeconomywasinrecession,thebiotechnologyindustrystillabsorbedUS$15billionininvestment,whichwasthesecondlargestinvestmentyearinthehistoryoftheindustry.Investorsbelievethatbiotechnologycompanies,especiallythosethatspecializeinnewdrugsandtheirpartnerpharmaceuticalcompanies,willlaunchhundredsofClassInewdrugsinthenextfiveyears.Breakthroughsinbiotechnologyinthefieldsofgeneticscience,proteinology,bioinformatics,computer-aideddrugdesign,DNAbiochips,andpharmacogeneticshavebroughttheattackofdiseasestothemolecularlevel.Manyinvestorsbelievethatusingbiotechnologicalmethodstodevelopnewdrugswillpayoff.

AccordingtothestatisticsoftheUnitedStatesBiotechnologyIndustryOrganization(BIO),between1982and2000,about120biologicaldrugsenteredthemarket;in2001,300newdrugswereundergoingfinalclinicaltrials.Basedonpastexperience,by2007,theU.S.FoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)willapproveabout240ofthesenewdrugstoenterthemarket,therebydoublingthenumberofbiotechdrugsonthemarket.Mostnewbiotechnologydrugsareaclassofnewdrugsusedtotreatheartdisease,cancer,diabetes,andinfectiousdiseases.

Thesignificantapplicationofbiotechnologyisnotonlyinthehealthindustry,butalsointheR&Dinvestmentofbiotechnologyinotherindustries.Relyingonbiotechnology,agricultureuseslesslandtoproducemorehealthyfood;manufacturingcanreduceenvironmentalpollutionandsaveenergyconsumption;industrycanuserenewableresourcestoproducerawmaterialstoprotecttheenvironment.

Inadditiontothematurityofthebiotechnologyindustry,whichisreflectedinproductdevelopment,anothermajorindicatoristheindustry’scashreserves.Sincethebiotechnologyindustryraisedalargeamountofcapitalinthesocietyin2000,mostbiotechnologycompanieshadaverygoodfundingsituationin2001.AccordingtoErnst&Young’s2001BiotechnologyReport,morethanhalfofthe340biotechnologycompanieslistedintheUnitedStateshavecashreservesthatcanbemaintainedformorethanthreeyears,whichhaslaidasolidfoundationfortherapiddevelopmentoftheindustryinthefuture.

Anothersignofthematurityofthebiotechnologyindustryisconsolidation.Well-fundedbiotechnologycompanies,suchasgenecompanies,aremergingotherauxiliarytechnologycompaniestoformcomprehensivebiopharmaceuticalcompaniesthatcandevelop,produce,andselltheirownproducts.Thiskindofmergeractivitynotonlyincreasesthecompany'sproductcategoriesandincome,butalsohelpstoimprovethecompetitivenessoftheentireindustry.

Thebiotechnologyindustryisthemaindrivingforceoftheneweconomy.Althoughthestockvalueofthebiotechnologyindustryhasshrunkgreatlyrecently,ithasgainedmoreinthepastthanithaslostnow.Inthepastyear,theNasdaqBiotechnologyIndexhasfallenby20%,butcomparedwiththepreviousthreeyears,theindexhasgrowncloseto100%.Inthecurrentstateofthebearmarket,theindexoutperformstheNasdaqCompositeIndexandtheDowJonesIndustrialAverage.Manyanalystsbelievethatbiologicalandpharmaceuticalstockswillperformmediocrebuthealthydevelopmentin2002.Inthenext12to24months,biologicalstockswilltakeoffagainandnewbiotechproductswillbegintoenterthemarket.

ManystategovernmentsintheUnitedStatessupportthedevelopmentofthebiotechnologyindustryandhavesuccessivelylaunchedmanyeconomicdevelopmentplanstoattractbiotechnologycompanies.Forexample,MichiganisoneofthetoptenbiotechstatesintheUnitedStates.Thestategovernmenthaspledgedtoenterthetop5inthebiotechnologyindustry,andplanstoinvestUS$1billiontobuildtheMichiganLifeScienceCorridor.Therearecurrentlymorethan300suchcorridors.Biocompanies.

Fromgenetomedicine

Inthefirstyearofthe21stcentury,scientistshavecompletedthesequencingofhumangenes.Theimpactofthisachievementonthedevelopmentofthebiotechnologyindustrywillbeincalculable.Intheprocessofexploringthemysteryofhumangenes,discoveringsomenewdrugshasbecomeafocusofattentioninbiotechnology.

InMay2001,theFDAapprovedthelistingofGleevecdevelopedbyNovartis,whichisagoodmedicineforthetreatmentofchronicleukemia.Thisisthefirstnewanti-cancerdrugdesignedanddevelopedbasedonthemechanismofcancercellactivity.Traditionalanticancerdrugswillaffectnormalcellsatthesametimeduringthetreatmentprocess,causinggreatsideeffectsonpatients,whileGleeveconlykillsgeneticallymutatedcancercells.ThelatestresearchshowsthatGleeveciseffectiveagainstbloodcancersandtumors,anditmaybecomeabroad-spectrumanti-cancerdrug.

Anotherclassofbiotechdrugsforcancertreatmentismonoclonalantibodies.Thetargetsoftheseantibodiesarespecificmoleculesrelatedtocancercells.Since1980,themagicaleffectofmonoclonalantibodieshasattractedtheattentionofmanypharmaceuticalcompanies.Aftermorethantenyearsofresearch,monoclonalantibodieshavebeeninitiallyrealizedasnewanti-cancerdrugs.Currently,manypharmaceuticalcompaniesaredevelopingmonoclonalantibodies,andtheirapplicationshaveexpandedfromanti-cancertootherdiseasetreatments.By2000,theFDAhadapproved9monoclonalantibodies,andmorethan60productswereundergoingclinicaltrials.

Intermsofanti-cancer,monoclonalantibodiesactlikethebody’sownimmunesystem,butinmostcases,thebody’sownimmunesystemwillnotstopcancercellsasharmfulcellsandkeeptheminthebody.Reproduction,endangeringhumanlife.

Theroleofmonoclonalantibodiesistotargetcancercells,destroythemoractivatethebody'simmunesystemtoattackcancercells.Monoclonalantibodiescanalsobecomeakindof"smartbomb",carryingradioactiveorchemicalmedia,andselectingcancercellsforattack.

In1997,theFDAapprovedthefirstmonoclonalantibody,Rituxin,forthetreatmentofnon-Hodgkin’slymphoma.In1998,anothermonoclonalantibody,Herceptin,wasmarketedforthetreatmentofbreastcancer.

HerceptinwasdevelopedbyAmericanGeneTechnologyCorporation,whichwasestablishedin1976astheearliestbiopharmaceuticalcompany.AmericanGeneTechnologyCorporationisoneofthetoptenbiotechnologycompaniesintheworld.Therearetenprotein-basedbiomedicalproductsonthemarket,andmorethan20productsareunderdevelopment,mainlyforthetreatmentofcancer,cardiovascularandimmunesystemdiseases.Thecompanyhasmorethan5,000employees.HumanGeneCorporationwasestablishedin1992andwasthefirstcompanyinthebiotechnologyindustrytodevelophumangenes.Thecompanyfirststudiedandexploredtherelationshipbetweenhumangenesanddiseases,withthegoalofdiscoveringdisease-relatedgenesanddevelopingrelatedtherapeuticdrugs.Thecompanycurrentlyhas8productsundergoingclinicaltrials.

Otherbiomedicalproductsincludegenetherapy,stemcellsandvaccines.Withthedeepeningofpeople'sunderstandingofhumanbiology,drugdiscoveryhasbecomemorecomplex.Thebiotechnologyandpharmaceuticalindustrieshavetorelyonmoreadvancedandcomplextoolstodevelopnewdrugs.Historically,Agilenthasalwaysbeenamajormanufacturerofmedicaltestingequipment.Thecompanyhasveryclosebusinessrelationshipswiththeworld'stoptenpharmaceuticalcompanies.Today,Agilentcanalsoprovidenewscientificinstrumentsfordiseasediagnosisandnewdrugresearch.

AgriculturalBiotechnology

Theapplicationofbiotechnologyinagricultureisbasedontheknowledgeofplantandanimalgeneticsandproteinology.Manyexpertsbelievethatonlybyrelyingonbiotechnologycandevelopingcountriesovercomehunger,andthattheglobalfoodshortagecausedbypopulationgrowthisexpectedtobealleviated.

Byusingspecificgenesinanimalsandplants,itispossibletogrowmorecropswithlesslandwhilereducingtheuseofpesticides.Usingbiotechnology,cropscanbeproducedinharshclimaticenvironments.Usingbiotechnologycanalsoimprovethenutritionandtasteoffood.

St.LouisintheUnitedStatesisthefastestgrowingregionintheworldforagriculturalbiotechnology.Theareaisconsideredtobeabiologicalindustrybelt,andMonsanto,awell-knownagriculturalbiotechnologycompany,isinthearea.

Theuseofbiotechnologyinbreedingisafastandeffectivebreedingmethod.Throughtheintroductionofspecificgenes,tochangethequalityofanimalsandplants.Forexample,scientistsimplantedanti-maturitygenesintomatoes,whichcanextendtheshelflifeoftomatoes.Theintroductionofinsect-resistantgenesthatareharmlesstohumansinplantscanpreventpestsanddiseasesandreducetheuseofpesticides.TheinterventionofgenesthatproducevitaminAinricecanimprovethenutritionalvalueofrice.

Anotherpossibleapplicationofbiotechnologyinagricultureistheproductionofediblevaccines,usingfruitsandvegetablestoproducevaccinesagainstinfectiousdiseasessuchashepatitisandcholera.Cloningtechnologyisusedinanimals,whichcanretainthehigh-yieldperformanceofhigh-qualityanimals.

Theagriculturalbiotechnologyproductsonthemarketaremainlygeneticallymodifiedsoybeans,corn,rapeseed,cottonandsoon.Transgenicplantswerequicklyacceptedbyfarmersfortheirexcellentquality.In2001,theplantingareaof​​geneticallymodifiedplantsintheworldreached53millionhectares,anincreaseof19%over2000.

IndustryandEnvironment

Theapplicationofbiotechnologytoindustrialmanufacturingandenvironmentalmanagementistopromotethesustainabledevelopmentofindustry.In1998,theOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopmentbelievedthatbiotechnologyThesustainabledevelopmentofthecountryplaysacriticalrole,encouragingitsmemberstatestosupportresearchinindustrialandenvironmentalbiotechnology.

Microbesareconsiderednaturalchemicalfactories.Theyarereplacingindustrialcatalystsinthemanufactureofchemicals.Forexample,enzymepreparationscanreplacephosphorusindetergentsandsulfidesinleathertanningprocesses.Inthepapermakingprocess,enzymepreparationscanreducetheamountofchlorideinthepulpbleachingprocess.Theapplicationofmicroorganismsinindustrialproductionprocessesmakesindustrialproductionclean,efficientandsustainable.

Enzymescanalsobeusedasbiocatalyststoconvertbiomassintoenergy,ethanol,etc.What'smoreattractiveisthatthroughbiologicalenzymes,cornstalkscanbeconvertedintodegradableplasticsforfoodpackaging.

Theapplicationofgeneticsandproteinologyinindustrialbiotechnologyisnotonlytodiscoverthecharacteristicsofmicrobialenzymes,butalsotomakemicroorganismsproducenewenzymepreparationsforvariouspurposesthroughtargetmutations.

Scientistspredictthatin10to20years,theapplicationofbiotechnologyinindustrywillbecomeasimportantasitsapplicationinhumanhealth.

ApplicationofBiotechnology

ApplicationofTraditionalBiotechnology

ApplicationofModernBiotechnologyApplicationofTraditionalBiotechnology

Include:

Microscopytechniqueslidespecimenmakingandstainingtechniqueisotopelabelingtechniquesoillesscultivationtechniquecropbreedingtechniquemicroscopetechniquephotoelectricmicroscopetechniqueelectronmicroscopetechnique

Application:Cell(microscopiclevel,subMicroscopiclevel)Glassslidespecimenpreparationandstainingtechnology

Application:Isotopelabelingandtracingtechnologyforthestudyofcellstructureandfunction*

Application:ResearchonchemicalsubstancesincellsororganismsRelatedissues,suchaswhereacertainsubstanceexists,howitmoves,andhowthesubstanceismixed.

Application

Currently,biotechnologyisnotonlyusedinhumanhealth,agriculture,industryandtheenvironment,butalsohassomeapplicationsinotherfields.

Therearemoreandmorebiologicalcompaniesdevelopingmedicalproductsforanimalhusbandry.TheannualmarketforanimalhealthproductsintheUnitedStatesisabout4billionU.S.dollars.Thereareabout100biologicalproductsforanimalsapprovedbytheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,mainlytopreventVaccinesandtreatmentsforzoonoticdiseasesandcommondiseases.

Biotechnologyisalsoappliedtotheprotectionofrarewildanimals,toidentifythespeciesofanimalsthroughDNArecognition,andtotracktheirareasofactivity.

Theapplicationofmarinebiotechnologyhasenabledthesurvivalofmarineorganismsthatareendangeredbyoverfishingtodevelop.Atthesametime,itprovidesawayformankindtodiscovernewdrugsfromtherichmarinebiologicalresources.Forexample,atoxininseasnailsisaneffectiveanalgesic,andspongescanbeusedasananti-infection.

Theapplicationofbiotechnologytospacedevelopmentcanbuildalifesupportenvironmentforastronautsforlong-termspaceexploration.Inaddition,biotechnologyisalsousedinhumanarchaeologyandcriminalinvestigations,andtheevolutionaryhistoryofhumanpopulationscanbestudiedthroughDNAanalysis.TheapplicationofDNAtechnologytotheinvestigationofcriminalcasescanhelplawenforcementofficerstoidentifycriminals.

Biologicalcounter-terrorism

The9/11terroristincidentintheUnitedStatesandthesubsequentanthraxcasemademostAmericansfeelthatfuturebioterrorismincidentsmayoccur,andthedefenseagainstbioterrorismincidentsmustbedonePayattentionto.

Inthepast,severalU.S.biotechnologycompanieshavecooperatedwithofficialstoproposeadefensestrategyforbiologicalweapons,butmostoftheexperimentswereonlysimulations.Before9/11,theUSDepartmentofHealth’sresearchfundingforbio-terrorismwasUS$50million.Butafter9/11,thebudgetincreasedsignificantly.Abiologicalcounter-terrorismbillpassedinJunethisyearallocatedUS$4.5billionfortheUSDepartmentofHomelandSecurity’sbiologicalcounter-terrorism.Expertspredictthatbiologicalcounter-terrorismwillbecomeanewfieldofnationaldefense,andtheUnitedStateswillusebiotechnologytodefendagainstvariouspossiblebiologicalterroristattacks.Biologicalcounter-terrorismwillbecloselyrelatedtothepublichealthsystem,thetraditionaldefenseindustry,biotechnologyandthepharmaceuticalindustry.Afterthe911incident,theUnitedStatesquicklydevelopedvaccinesagainstanthraxandsmallpox.Approximately24Americanbiotechnologycompaniesareparticipatingintheresearchanddevelopmentofothervaccinesandmedicines.TheUSgovernmentintendstopayUS$640milliontoaccumulatevaccinesforrelateddiseasestopreventvariouspossiblebioterrorismincidents.Forexample,newantibioticsandantiviraltreatmentsarebeingdevelopedtodealwithpathogensthatarealreadydisease-resistant.Acompanyisstudyingtheuseofmonoclonalantibodiestoremovetoxinsfromtheblood.Otherproductsunderdevelopmentincludespecialenzymepreparationsforrepairingintentionallypollutedenvironments,rapidairmonitors,infectiousagentdiagnosticreagents,newdrugdeliverysystems,etc.

Examples

DNAreplicationduringmitosis,materialchangesinphotosynthesis,materialtransporthormonesinanimalandplantcells,distributionandtransportofanimalembryoniclayerdevelopmentanddifferentiationgeneticmaterialfoundResearchonsoillessculturetechnology

Usingtheprincipleofsolutionculturemethod,variousmineralelementsneededinthegrowthanddevelopmentofplantsareformulatedintoanutrientsolutionaccordingtoacertainratio,andthisnutrientsolutionisusedtoTechniquesforgrowingplants.

Geneticengineering

Geneticengineeringreferstodesigningatthegeneticlevelaccordingtohumanneeds,andthencreatingnewbiologicalstrainswithcertainnewtraitsaccordingtothedesignplan,andItcanbestablypassedontooffspring.Geneticengineeringusesamethodverysimilartoengineeringdesign,whichobviouslyhasboththecharacteristicsofscienceandengineeringatthesametime.

AfterunderstandingthatthegeneticcodeisRNAtranscriptionandexpression,biologistsalsowanttointerferewiththegeneticsoforganismsatthemolecularlevel.In1973,ProfessorCohenofStanfordUniversityintheUnitedStates"cutout"thedifferentdrugresistancegenesonthetwoplasmidsand"spliced"themintothesameplasmid.WhenthishybridplasmidentersE.coli,theE.colicanresisttwodrugs,anditsoffspringhavedualantibacterialproperties.Cohen'srecombinationexperimentopenedthecurtainofgeneticengineering.

DNArecombinationtechnologyisthecoretechnologyofgeneticengineering.Recombination,asthenameimplies,isrecombination,thatis,usingthegeneticmaterialofthedonororganism,orartificiallysynthesizedgenes,afterbeingcutinvitroandconnectedwithanappropriatevectortoformarecombinantDNAmolecule,andthentherecombinantDNAmoleculeisintroducedintotherecipientcellorTherecipientorganismconstructsageneticallymodifiedorganism,andthisorganismcanshowcertaintraitsofanotherorganismaccordingtotheblueprintdesignedbyhumansinadvance.

1.MaterialbasisofDNArecombinationtechnology

(1)Targetgene

Geneengineeringisakindofcreativeworkwithexpectedpurpose,anditsrawmaterialistargetgene.Theso-calledtargetgenereferstoaDNAfragmentobtainedbyartificialmethodsthatmeetsthedesigner'srequirements.Underappropriateconditions,thetargetgenewillbeexpressedintheformofprotein,soastoachievethedesigner'sgoalofmodifyingbiologicaltraits.

(2)Vector

Generally,thetargetgenecannotdirectlyenteranotherbiologicalcell.Itneedstobecombinedwithaspecificvectortosafelyentertherecipientcell.Currentlycommonlyusedvectorsareplasmids,bacteriophagesandviruses.

PlasmidisacircularDNAmoleculefoundinthecellsofmostbacteriaandsomeeukaryotes.Itislocatedinthecytoplasm.Manyplasmidscontaingenesthatmaybeessentialundercertaincircumstances.

Bacteriophageisatypeofvirusthatspecificallyinfectsbacteria.Itconsistsofaproteinshellandanucleicacidinthecenter.Wheninfectingbacteria,bacteriophagesinjectDNAintobacteria,usingDNAasatemplate,copyDNAmolecules,synthesizeproteins,andfinallyassemblenewbacteriophages.Whenthebacteriadieandrupture,alargenumberofbacteriophagesarereleasedtoinfectthenexttarget..

Thesimilaritybetweenplasmids,phagesandvirusesisthattheycaninjecttheirownDNAmoleculesintohostcellsandkeeptheDNAmoleculesintact.Therefore,theybecomesuitablevectorsforcarryingthetargetgene.Therefore,thecarrieringeneticengineeringisessentiallysomespecialDNAmolecules.

(3)Toolenzyme

Geneengineeringrequiresasetoftoolstoisolatethetargetgenefromtheorganism,andthenselectasuitablevectortoconnectthetargetgenewiththevector.DNAmoleculesareverysmall,withadiameterofonly20angstroms(10-10meters).Geneticengineeringisactuallyakindof"supermicro-engineering".Specialtoolsarerequiredtocut,stitchandtransportDNA.

In1968,scientistsextractedrestrictionendonucleasesfromEscherichiacoliforthefirsttime.Thebiggestfeatureofrestrictionendonucleasesisthattheyarehighlyspecific,abletorecognizespecificnucleotidesequencesonDNAandcutDNAmoleculesatspecificcutpoints.Sincethe1970s,morethan400restrictionenzymeshavebeenisolatedandextracted.Withit,peoplecancutlongstrandsofDNAmoleculesatwill.In1976,scientistsinfivelaboratoriesalmostsimultaneouslydiscoveredandextractedanenzymecalledDNAligase.Sincethen,DNAligasehasbecomethe"molecularglue"that"bonds"genes.

1.GeneraloperationstepsofDNArecombinationtechnology

AtypicalDNArecombinationincludesfivesteps:

(1)Obtainingthetargetgene

Currently,therearethreemainmethodsforobtainingtargetgenes:reversetranscription,directisolationfromthecellgenome,andartificialsynthesis.

ReversetranscriptionisamethodtoobtainthetargetgenebyreversetranscriptionofmRNA.Nowpeoplehavesynthesizedtheglobingenesandfeatherkeratingenesofrabbits,ducksandhumansinthisway.

The"shotgunmethod"iscommonlyusedtodirectlyisolatethetargetgenefromthecellgenome.Becausethismethodislikeshootingabirdwithashotgun,itisalsocalledthe"shotgunmethod".Usingthe"shotgunmethod"toisolatethetargetgenehastheadvantagesofsimplicity,convenienceandeconomy.Manyviruses,prokaryotes,andsomeeukaryoticgeneshavebeensuccessfullyisolatedusingthismethod.

Chemicalsynthesisoftargetgenesisanewtechnologydevelopedsincethe1970s.Theapplicationofchemicalsynthesismethodcansynthesizethetargetgeneinashorttime.Scientistshavesuccessivelysynthesizedhumansomatotropin,insulin,interferonandotherprotein-codinggenes.

(2)InvitrorecombinationofDNAmolecules

Invitrorecombinationistoconnectthevectorwiththetargetgene.Forexample,whenusingaplasmidasavector,firstselecttheappropriaterestrictionendonucleasetocutthetargetgeneandthevector,andthenuseDNAligasetoconnectthedeoxynucleotidesatbothendsofthecut,sothetargetgeneisembeddedintotheplasmidDNA,recombinationformsanewcircularDNAmolecule(hybridDNAmolecule).

(3)TheintroductionofrecombinantDNA

Afterthetargetgeneisloadedonthevector,itneedstobeintroducedintotherecipientcell.Therearemanywaysofintroduction,includingtransformation,transduction,microinjection,particlebombardmentandelectroporation.Transformationandtransductionaremainlyappliedtoprokaryoticcellssuchasbacteriaandlowereukaryoticcellssuchasyeast.Othermethodsaremainlyappliedtocellsofhigheranimalsandplants.

(4)Screeningofrecipientcells

BecausethetransformationsuccessrateofrecombinantDNAisnottoohigh,itisnecessarytosuccessfullytransfertherecombinantDNAintoalargenumberofcells.Thecellsarepickedout.Specificsignsshouldbefoundinadvancetoprovewhethertheimportwassuccessful.

Forexample,weoftenuseantibioticstoprovethesuccessoftheintroduction.

(5)Geneexpression

Afterthetargetgeneissuccessfullyintroducedintotherecipientcell,thegeneticinformationitcarriesmustbeexpressedthroughthesynthesisofnewproteins,therebychangingthereceptorThegenetictraitsofthecell.Forthetargetgenetobeexpressedintherecipientcell,someconditionsneedtobemet.Forexample,thetargetgeneusestheribosomeoftherecipientcelltosynthesizeprotein,sothetargetgenemustcontainafunctionalfragmentthatcanstarttheribosomeoftherecipientcell.

Thesefivestepsrepresentthegeneraloperatingprocessofgeneticengineering.

Peoplehavenotmasteredgeneticengineeringtechnologyforalongtime,buttheyhaveobtainedmanyresultswithpracticalapplicationvalue.Asthecoreofmodernbiotechnology,geneticengineeringwillplaymoreandmorerolesinsocialproductionandpractice.Importantrole.

Moderntechnology

Modernbiotechnologygenerallyincludesgeneticengineering,cellengineering,enzymeengineering,fermentationengineeringandproteinengineering.Attheendofthe20thcentury,withtheriseofcomputationalbiology,chemicalbiologyandsyntheticbiology,thebiotechnologyofsystemsbiology-systemsbiotechnology,includingbioinformatics,nanobiotechnologyandsyntheticbiotechnology,wasdeveloped.Wait.

Applicationprospects

Withnewbreakthroughsinlifesciences,modernbiotechnologyhasbeenwidelyusedinmanyfieldssuchasindustry,agricultureandanimalhusbandry,medicine,environmentalprotection,etc.,resultinginahugeeconomyAndsocialbenefits.

Industry

Food

Firstofall,biotechnologyisusedtoincreaseproductionefficiency,therebyincreasingfoodproduction.

Secondly,biotechnologycanimprovefoodquality.Forexample,usingstarchasarawmaterialandusingimmobilizedenzymes(orenzyme-containingbacteria)toproducehighfructosesyrupinsteadofsucroseisarevolutioninthesugarindustry.

Third,biotechnologyisalsousedtodevelopfoodtypes.Theuseofbiotechnologytoproducesingle-cellproteinprovidesafeasiblewaytosolvetheproblemofproteindeficiency.Atpresent,theworld'soutputofsingle-cellproteinhasexceeded30milliontons,andthequalityhasalsomademajorbreakthroughs,frombeingmainlyusedasfeedtobeingonpeople'stables.

Intermsofmaterials

Theconstructionofnewbiomaterialsthroughbiotechnologyisoneoftheimportantwaysforthedevelopmentofmodernnewmaterials.

Firstofall,biotechnologyturnssomewastebiologicalmaterialsintotreasure.Forexample,biotechnologycanbeusedtoobtainchitinfromtheshellsofcrustaceanssuchasshrimpsandcrabs.Chitinisanexcellentmaterialformakingsurgicalsutures.Itissoftandcanacceleratewoundhealing.Itcanalsobeabsorbedbythebodytoavoidstitchremoval.

Secondly,biotechnologyprovidesthepossibilityforlarge-scaleproductionofscarcebiologicalmaterials.Forexample,spidersilkisaspecialproteinwithhighstrengthandhighplasticity.Itcanbeusedtoproducebulletproofvests,parachutesandotherarticles.Theuseofbiotechnologycanproducespidersilkproteinandobtainfiberscomparabletospidersilk.

Third,newmaterialtypescanbedevelopedusingbiotechnology.Forexample,somemicroorganismscanproducebiodegradablebioplastics,avoiding"whitepollution".

Energyaspects

Biotechnologycanincreasetherateofnon-renewableenergyextractionontheonehand,andontheotherhanditcandevelopmorerenewableenergysources.

Firstofall,biotechnologyhasimprovedtheefficiencyofoilextraction.

Secondly,biotechnologyhasopenedthewayfortheuseofnewenergy.

Agriculture

Modernbiotechnologyisincreasinglyusedinagriculturetoenabletheagriculturaleconomytoachievehighyield,highqualityandhighefficiency.

Cropandflowerproduction

Thegoalofapplyingbiotechnologytocropandflowerproductionistoincreaseyield,improvequalityandobtainstress-resistantplants.

Firstofall,biotechnologycannotonlyincreasecropyields,butalsorapidlymultiply.

Secondly,biotechnologycannotonlyimprovethequalityofcrops,butalsodelaythematurityofplants,therebyextendingtheshelflifeofplantfoods.

Third,biotechnologyhasplayedanimportantroleincultivatingstress-resistantcrops.Forexample,insect-resistantcropsbredbygeneticengineeringmethodsdonotrequiretheapplicationofpesticides,whichnotonlyimprovestheeconomicbenefitsofplanting,butalsoprotectsourenvironment.mycountry’sgeneticallymodifiedinsect-resistantcottonvarietieshavebeenpromotedinmorethan2millionmuin1999,creatinghugeeconomicbenefits.

Livestockandpoultryproduction

Usingbiotechnologytoobtainhigh-yieldandhigh-qualitylivestockandpoultryproductsandimprovethediseaseresistanceoflivestockandpoultry.

Firstofall,biotechnologycannotonlyspeedupthereproductionandgrowthoflivestockandpoultry,butalsoimprovethequalityoflivestockandpoultryandprovidehigh-qualitymeat,milk,andeggproducts.

Secondly,biotechnologycancultivatedisease-resistantlivestockandpoultrybreedsandreducetherisksofthebreedingindustry.Forexample,theuseofgeneticallymodifiedmethodstobreeddisease-resistantanimalscangreatlyreducetheoccurrenceoflivestockplagues,ensurethehealthoflivestock,andalsoensurehumanhealth.

Newagriculturalfields

Geneengineeringhasnotonlyimprovedtheyieldandqualityofagriculturalandanimalhusbandryproducts.

Theuseofgeneticallymodifiedplantstoproducevaccinesiscurrentlyaresearchhotspot.Researchershopethatedibleplantscanbeusedtoexpressvaccines,andpeoplecanachievethepurposeofvaccinationbyeatingthesegeneticallymodifiedplants.HepatitisBvaccinehasbeenexpressedingeneticallymodifiedtobacco.

Theuseoftransgenicanimalstoproducemedicinalproteinsisalsoacurrentresearchhotspot.Scientistshavebredavarietyofgeneticallymodifiedanimalswhosemammaryglandscanspecificallyexpressforeigngenesofinterest,sotheycanobtaintheproteinmedicinetheyneedfromtheirmilk.Becausethegeneticallymodifiedcowsorsheepeatgrassandsqueezethem.Themilkproducedcontainspreciousmedicinalprotein,theproductioncostislow,andhugeeconomicbenefitscanbeobtained.

Medicine

Thefieldofmedicineandhealthisthefieldwiththemostextensiveapplication,themostsignificantachievements,thefastestdevelopment,andthegreatestpotentialofmodernbiotechnology.

Diseaseprevention

Usingvaccinestoactivelyimmunizethehumanbodyisoneofthemosteffectivemeanstopreventinfectiousdiseases.Injectionororalvaccinescanactivatethebody'simmunesystemandproducespecificantibodiesagainstpathogens.

Afterthe1970s,peoplebegantousegeneticengineeringtechnologytoproducevaccines.Ageneticengineeringvaccineistorecombineacertainproteingeneofapathogenintobacteriaoreukaryoticcells,andusethebacteriaoreukaryoticcellstoproducealargeamountofpathogenprotein,andusethisproteinasavaccine.Forexample,theuseofgeneticengineeringtoproducehepatitisBvaccineforthepreventionofhepatitisB.ThegeneticallyengineeredhepatitisBvaccineproducedinmycountrymainlyusestheyeastexpressionsystemtoproducethevaccine.

Diseasediagnosis

Thedevelopmentandapplicationofbiotechnologyprovidesnewdiagnostictechnologies,especiallytheapplicationofmonoclonalantibodydiagnosticreagentsandDNAdiagnostictechnology.Manydiseases,especiallytumorsandinfectiousdiseases,canbeaccuratelydiagnosedatanearlystage.

Figure4-40showsthepreparationofmonoclonalantibodies.Monoclonalantibodieshavedevelopedrapidlyduetotheirobviousadvantages.Therearetensofthousandsofmonoclonalantibodiessuccessfullydevelopedallovertheworld,whicharemainlyusedinclinicaldiagnosis,therapeuticreagents,andspecifickillingoftumorcells.Somemonoclonalantibodiescanbecombinedwithradioisotopes,toxins,andchemicalsforcancertreatment.Theycanaccuratelyfindthesiteofcancerandkillcancercells.Theyarecalled"biologicalmissiles"and"tumorbusters."

DNAdiagnosistechnologyusesrecombinantDNAtechnologytodirectlydiagnosehumangeneticdiseases,tumors,infectiousdiseasesandotherdiseasesfromtheDNAlevel.Ithastheadvantagesofstrongspecificity,highsensitivity,andeasyoperation.

Diseasetreatment

Intermsofdiseasetreatment,biotechnologymainlyincludestheprovisionofdrugs,genetherapyandorgantransplantation.

Usinggeneticengineeringcanmassproducesomerareandexpensivedrugs,reducingtheburdenonpatients.Thesepreciousdrugsincludesomatostatin,insulin,interferonandsoon.

Genetherapyisanewtherapythatappliesgeneticengineeringtechnologyandmoleculargeneticsprinciplestotreathumandiseases.

Theworld’sfirstsuccessfulgenetherapywasperformedona4-year-oldAmericangirlwhocompletelylostimmunefunctionduetolackofadenosinedeaminaseinherbody.Livinginaroom,otherwiseyouwilldieduetoinfection.Aftertreatment,thegirlcanenterordinaryelementaryschool.AsofJune1997,thereare218clinicalgenetherapyprogramsapprovedworldwide,andthetotalnumberofpatientsreceivinggenetherapyandgenetransferhasbeen2,557.

ResearcherssuchasRobertWeinberg,publishedinthejournal"Cell"onJune3,2013,haveachievednewresultsintheresearchontheinvasivenessofbreastcancer:genesdeterminethefateofbreastcancercells.

In1990,theHumanGenomeProjectwasofficiallylaunchedintheUnitedStates.OnApril14,2003,scientistsfromChina,theUnitedStates,Britain,Japan,FranceandGermanyannouncedthatthehumangenomesequencemapwassuccessfullydrawn.ThecompletionoftheHumanGenomeProjectwillhelphumansunderstandthepathogenesisofmanygeneticdiseasesandcancers,andwillprovidemoretheoreticalbasisforgenetherapy.Thetechnologyoforgantransplantationisdevelopinginthedirectionofxenotransplantation,thatis,usingmodernbiotechnologytotransferhumangenestoanotherspecies,andthentheorgansofthisspeciesaretakenoutandplacedinthehumanbodytoreplacethesick"parts"ofthehuman.Inaddition,cloningtechnologycanbeusedtocreateorgansthatarecompletelysuitableforthehumanbodytoreplacethe"criticallyill"organsofthehumanbody.

Environmentalaspects

Pollutionmonitoring

Modernbiotechnologyhasestablishedanewtypeofeffectivemethodforrapidandaccurateenvironmentalmonitoringandevaluation,Includingtheuseofnewindicatororganisms,theuseofnucleicacidprobesandtheuseofbiosensors.

Peopleusebacteria,protozoa,algae,higherplants,andfishasindicatororganisms,andmonitortheirresponsetotheenvironmenttoevaluateenvironmentalquality.

Theemergenceofnucleicacidprobetechnologyalsoprovidesaneffectivewayforenvironmentalmonitoringandevaluation.Forexample,usingBacillusnucleicacidprobestomonitorEscherichiacoliinthewaterenvironment.

Inrecentyears,theapplicationofbiosensorsinenvironmentalmonitoringhasdevelopedrapidly.Biosensorsusemicroorganisms,cells,enzymes,antibodiesandotherbiologicallyactivesubstancesasidentificationelementsforpollutants,andhavetheadvantagesoflowcost,easyproduction,convenientuse,andrapiddetermination.

Pollutioncontrol

Modernbiologicaltreatmentusespurelyculturedmicrobialstrainstodegradepollutants.

Forexample,scientistsusegeneticengineeringtechnologytotransferaninsect'sDDT-resistantgeneintobacteria,cultivateabacteriathat"eats"DDT,cultivatetheminlargequantities,andputtheminthesoil.DDTinthesoilWillbe"eaten"completely.

Foranotherexample,scientistshavedevelopedabiologicalstrainRhPwithstrongpollutionresistance.Whenplacedinpollutedwater,itcanquicklyabsorbandconsumenitrogen,phosphorus,andnitrogeninthewaterwithoutconsumingoxygen.Pollutionelementssuchassulfurandcarbonreducethenutrientcontentofthewaterbody,cutoffthesourceofnutrientsforthegrowthofcyanobacteria,andachievethepurposeoftreatingcyanobacteria.

Schoolsestablished:JiangsuUniversityofScienceandTechnology,ZhejiangWanliCollege(Biotechnologyisanationalspecialty)

Comparativeadvantage

FromFromtheperspectiveofpolicysupport,inthe"DecisionoftheStateCouncilonAcceleratingtheCultivationandDevelopmentofStrategicEmergingIndustries","vigorouslydevelopinnovativedrugssuchasbiotechnologydrugsforthepreventionandtreatmentofmajordiseases,newvaccinesanddiagnosticreagents,chemicaldrugs,andmodernChinesemedicines.Theexpression"variety"showsthatmodernChinesemedicineisanindispensablepartofthedevelopmentofChina'sbiologicalindustry.

Fromtheperspectiveofhorizontalcomparativeresearch,theexperienceofdevelopedcountriessuchastheUnitedStates,JapanandSouthKoreashowsthatlargecompaniesandbigbullstocksareoftenborninindustriesthatcanrepresenttheirnationalcompetitiveness,suchasApple,Toyota,andSamsung.Wait.Basedonthisspeculation,ifChinacanproduceworld-classenterprises,itismostlikelytobeinmycountry'sareasofcomparativeadvantage.

CellEngineering

Thereisnounifiedstatementaboutthedefinitionandscopeofcellengineering.Itisgenerallybelievedthatcellengineeringisbasedontheprinciplesofcellbiologyandmolecularbiology,usingcellculturetechnology,Geneticmanipulationatthecellularlevel.Cellengineeringcanberoughlydividedintochromosomeengineering,cytoplasmicengineeringandcellfusionengineering.

1.Cellculturetechnology

Cellculturetechnologyisthebasictechnologyofcellengineering.Theso-calledcellcultureisatechniqueinwhichacertainpartofabiologicalorganismistakenoutofasmallpieceandculturedtomakeitgrowanddivide.Cellcultureisalsocalledtissueculture.Theprogressofsomeimportanttheoreticalresearchesincellbiologyinthepasttwodecades,suchastherevealingofcellpluripotency,cellcycleanditsregulation,thestudyofcarcinogenesisandcellsenescence,geneexpressionandregulation,etc.,arenotseparatefromcellculturetechnology.It'sopen.

Invitrocellculture,thenutrientneededtosupplytheanimalandplantcellsleavingthewholeistheculturemedium.Inadditiontorichnutrients,theculturemediumgenerallycontainssometracesubstancesthatstimulatecellgrowthanddevelopment..Theculturemediumgenerallyhastwokindsofsolidandliquid,anditmustbesterilizedbeforeitcanbeused.Inaddition,temperature,light,andoscillationfrequencyarealsoimportantconditionsthataffectcultivation.

Thebasicprocessofplantcellandtissuecultureincludesthefollowingsteps:

Thefirststepistostartfromspecificpartsortissuesofhealthyplants,suchasroots,stems,leaves,flowers,Fruits,pollen,etc.,selectthestartingmaterial(explants)forcultivation.

Thesecondstepistousecertainchemicals(mostcommonlyusedaresodiumhypochlorite,mercuryandalcohol,etc.)todisinfectthesurfaceoftheexplantstoestablishasterileculturesystem.

Thethirdstepistoformcallusandorgans,andthenthecalluscandifferentiateintobudsandfurtherinducetheformationofplantlets.

Therearetwowaystocultureanimalcells.Oneiscallednon-adherentculture:thatis,thecellsdonotadheretothewallduringthecultureprocess,theconditionsaremorecomplicated,andthedifficultyisgreater,butitiseasytoobtainalargenumberofculturedcellsatthesametime.Thismethodisgenerallyusedforthecultivationoflymphocytes,tumorcellsandsometransformedcells.Anotherculturemethodisadherentculture:itisalsocalledcelladherence,andtheadherentcellsgrowinasinglelayer,sothismethodisalsocalledmonolayercellculture.Thismethodmustbeusedforthecultivationofmostmammaliancells.

Animalcellscannotbeculturedinvitro.Takehumanskincellcultureasanexample.Themainstepsofanimalcellcultureareasfollows:

Thefirststep,underasepticconditions,Aproperamountoftissueistakenoutofhealthyanimalsandcutintosmallslices.

Thesecondstepistoaddappropriateconcentrationsofenzymesandauxiliarysubstancesfordigestiontodispersethecells.

Thethirdstepistowashandpurifythedispersedcells,addthemtotheculturemediumatanappropriateconcentration,culturethemat37°C,andcarryoutpassagesintime.

Incellculture,weoftenuseaword-clone.ThetermclonecomesfromtheEnglishtransliterationofclone,whichreferstoasexualreproductionandcellpopulationsorbiologicalpopulationsderivedfromasexualreproduction.Cellcloningreferstoaclonallineofcells.Naturalclonesalreadyexistinnature.Forexample,identicaltwinsareactuallyakindofclone.

Ingeneticengineering,thereisalsoamolecularcloning(molecularcloning)proposedbyCohenetal.in1973.MolecularcloningoccursattheDNAmolecularlevel.ItreferstoaDNAmoleculeobtainedbyextractingacertaingenefromacellasaforeigngene,connectingitwithavectorinvitro,andthenintroducingitintoanotherrecipientcelltoreplicateautonomously.Tie.

2.Cellnucleartransfertechnology

Becausethecloneisasexuallypropagated,thegeneticmakeupofallmembersinthesamecloneisexactlythesame,whichisconducivetofaithfullymaintainingthequalityoftheoriginalvarietycharacteristic.Peoplebegantoexploreartificialmethodstoclonehigheranimals.Therearetwomainmethodsofmammaliancloning:embryodivisionandnucleartransfer.Amongthem,nucleartransplantationisanewtechnologythathasdevelopedlatebuthasgreatpotential.

Nucleartransfertechnologybelongstocytoplasmicengineering.Theso-callednucleartransfertechnologyreferstotheuseofmechanicalmeanstotransferanucleus(containinggeneticmaterial)calleda"donorcell"intoanothercellcalleda"recipient"afterthenucleushasbeenremoved,andthenthisrecombinantcellFurtherdevelopmentanddifferentiation.Theprincipleofnucleartransferisbasedonthepluripotencyofthenucleusofanimalcells.

Theideaof​​usingcellnucleartransfertechnologytocloneanimalswasfirstproposedbyaGermanembryologistin1938.Beginningin1952,scientistsfirstusedamphibianstocarryoutnucleartransfercloningexperiments,andsuccessivelyobtainedtadpolesandadultfrogs.In1963,ascientificresearchgroupledbyProfessorTongDizhouofmycountryusedgoldfishasmaterialstostudythenucleartransfertechnologyoffishembryoniccellsandachievedsuccess.Until1995,embryoniccellnucleartransferhadbeensuccessfulinmajormammals,butnucleartransferofdifferentiatedcellsinadultanimalshadnotbeensuccessful.

In1996,IanWilmut’sresearchteamattheRoslinInstituteinEdinburgh,UKsuccessfullyusedthemethodofnucleartransfertocultivateaclonedsheep-Dolly.Thiswastheworld’sfirstuseofadultbreastfeedingAclonedanimalproducedbynucleartransplantationofanimalsomaticcells..

Innucleartransplantation,notallcellscanbeusedasnucleardonors.Therearetwotypesofdonorcells:oneisembryoniccellsandtheotheriscertainsomaticcells.

Researchshowsthateggcells,oocytesandfertilizedeggcellsareallsuitablerecipientcells.

InJune2000,NorthwestAgricultureandForestryUniversityofmycountryusedadultgoatsomaticcellstoclonetwo"clonedsheep",whichshowsthatChinesescientistsalsomasteredthecutting-edgetechnologyofmammaliansomaticcellnucleartransfer.

Theresearchofnucleartransfernotonlyhasimportantscientificvalueinprobingimportanttheoreticalissuessuchasthetotipotencyofanimalcellnuclei,therelationshipbetweennucleusandcytoplasm,butalsohasveryimportanteconomicvalueinanimalhusbandryproduction.Applicationprospects.

3.Cellfusiontechnology

Cellfusiontechnologybelongstocellfusionengineering.Cellfusiontechnologyisanewtechnologyforobtaininghybridcellstochangecellperformance.Itreferstotheartificialfusionofsomaticcellsofthesameordifferentspeciesunderinvitroconditionsusingafusioninducertoformhybridcells.process.Cellfusionisanimportantmethodincytogenetics,cellularimmunology,virology,oncology,etc.

Themainstepsofanimalcellfusionare:

Thefirststep,Obtainparentalcells.Separatethecellsfromthesampledtissuebytrypsinormechanicalmethods,andconductadherentcultureorsuspensionculturerespectively.

Thesecondstepistoinducefusion.Thetwoparentalcellsareplacedinthesameculturemediumforcellfusion.Thefusionprocessofanimalcellsisgenerally:twocellsareinclosecontact→cellmembranesaremerged→channelsorcellbridgesappearbetweencells→thenumberofcellbridgesisincreasedtoexpandthechannelarea→thetwocellsarefusedintoone.

Themainstepsofplantcellfusionare:

Thefirststepistoprepareparentalprotoplasts.

Thesecondstepistoinducefusion.

Thefusionstepsofmicrobialcellsarebasicallythesameasthoseofplantcells.

Sincethe1970s,manykindsofcellshavebeensuccessfullyfused,includingnewhybridplantsthatsuccessfullyfusedbetweenplants,animals,animalsandplants,andevenbetweenhumancellsandanimalsandplants,suchas""Tomatoesandpotatoes","Arabidopsisrape"and"mushroomcabbage"etc.(Figure4-36istheuseofcellfusiontocultivatehybridplants)Judgingfromthecurrentleveloftechnology,itisstillnotpossibletofusionmanydistantcellsintohybridindividuals,especiallyanimalcellsaremoredifficult.

Enzymeengineering,fermentationengineeringandproteinengineering

1.EnzymeengineeringEnzymeengineeringreferstotheuseofspecificcatalyticfunctionsofenzymes,cellsororganelles,withthehelpofbiologicalreactiondevicesandcertainThetechnologicalmeansofproducingtheproductsneededbymankind.Itisanewtechnologyformedbythecombinationofenzymologytheoryandchemicaltechnology.

Enzymeengineeringcanbedividedintotwoparts.Partishowtoproduceenzymes,andpartishowtoapplyenzymes.

Theproductionofenzymeshasroughlygonethroughfourstagesofdevelopment.Enzymeswereoriginallyextractedfromanimalviscera.Withtheadvancementofenzymeengineering,peopleusedalargenumberofmicroorganismstoobtainenzymes.Afterthebirthofgeneticengineering,enzyme-producingmicroorganismsweretransformedthroughgeneticrecombination.Inrecentyears,anotherenzymeengineeringhasappeared.Thenewhottopicistheartificialsynthesisofnewenzymes,thatis,artificialenzymes.

Therearealsosomeshortcomingsintheuseofenzymes.Ifitencountershightemperature,strongacid,strongalkali,itwillloseitsactivity,whichiscostlyandexpensive.Inpracticalapplications,theenzymecanonlybeusedonce.Theimmobilizationofenzymescansolvetheseproblems,anditiscalledthecenterofenzymeengineering.

Intheearly1960s,scientistsdiscoveredthatafterimmobilizationofmanyenzymes,theactivitydidnotdecreaseatall,butthestabilityincreased.Thisdiscoveryisaturningpointinthepopularizationandapplicationofenzymes,andalsoaturningpointinthedevelopmentofenzymeengineering.Nowadays,enzymeimmobilizationtechnologyischangingwitheachpassingday.Itmanifestsintwoaspects:

Oneisafixedmethod.Therearecurrentlyfourtypesoffixationmethods:adsorptionmethod,covalentbondingmethod,cross-linkingmethodandembeddingmethod.

Thesecondistheimmobilizedenzyme,whichhasavarietyofenzymesthatcancatalyzeaseriesofreactions.

Comparedwithnaturalenzymes,immobilizedenzymesandimmobilizedcellshaveobviousadvantages:

1.Itcanbemadeintovariousshapes,suchasgranular,tubular,andmembrane-like.Installedinthereactiontank,easytotakeout,convenientforcontinuousandrepeateduse;

2,stabilityisimproved,noteasytoloseactivity,andservicelifeisprolonged;

3,easytoautomateandrealizeContinuousproductioncontrolledbycomputer.

Nowdozensofcountrieshaveadoptedimmobilizedenzymesandimmobilizedcellsforindustrialproduction.Productsincludealcohol,beer,variousaminoacids,variousorganicacids,andmedicines.

2.Fermentationengineering

Modernfermentationengineering.Itisalsocalledmicrobialengineering,whichreferstotheuseofmodernbiologicalengineeringtechniquestousecertainspecificfunctionsofmicroorganismstoproduceusefulproductsforhumans,ortodirectlyapplymicroorganismstoindustrialproductionprocesses.

Fermentationisauniquefunctionofmicroorganisms.Ithasbeenrecognizedbyhumansthousandsofyearsagoandusedtomakewine,breadandotherfoods.Inthe1920s,alcoholfermentation,glycerolfermentationandpropanolfermentationweremainlyused.Inthemid-1940s,theAmericanantibioticindustryemerged,andlarge-scaleproductionofpenicillinandthesuccessfulfermentationofJapaneseglutamate(MSG)greatlypromotedthedevelopmentofthefermentationindustry.

Inthe1970s,withtherapiddevelopmentofbioengineeringtechnologiessuchasgenerecombinationtechnologyandcellfusion,thefermentationindustryenteredthestageofmodernfermentationengineering.Itnotonlyproducesalcoholicbeverages,aceticacidandbread,butalsoproducesavarietyofmedicalandhealthcaredrugssuchasinsulin,interferon,growthhormone,antibioticsandvaccines,andproducesagriculturalproductionmaterialssuchasnaturalpesticides,bacterialfertilizersandmicrobialherbicides.InthechemicalindustryProduceaminoacids,spices,biopolymers,enzymes,vitaminsandsingle-cellproteinsonthemarket.

Inabroadsense,fermentationengineeringconsistsofthreeparts:upstreamengineering,fermentationengineeringanddownstreamengineering.Theupstreamprojectincludestheselectionandbreedingofexcellentseedplants,thedeterminationofthemostsuitablefermentationconditions(pH,temperature,dissolvedoxygenandnutrientcomposition),andthepreparationofnutrients.Fermentationengineeringmainlyreferstotheprocesstechnologyofcultivatingcellsandproducingmetabolitesinalargeamountoffermentationtanksunderoptimalfermentationconditions.Downstreamengineeringreferstothetechnologyofseparatingandpurifyingproductsfromfermentationbroth.

Thestepsoffermentationengineeringgenerallyinclude:

Thefirststepisthebreedingofstrains.

Thesecondstepisthepreparationandsterilizationoftheculturemedium.

Thethirdstepistoexpandcultivationandinoculation.

Thefourthstepisthefermentationprocess.

Thefifthstepisseparationandpurification.

Fermentationengineeringhasbeenwidelyusedinmanyfieldssuchaspharmaceuticalindustry,foodindustry,agriculture,metallurgicalindustry,andenvironmentalprotection.

3.Proteinengineering

Inmodernbiotechnology,proteinengineeringappearedintheearly1980s.Proteinengineeringreferstothein-depthunderstandingofproteinspatialstructureandtherelationshipbetweenstructureandfunction,andonthebasisofmasteringgenemanipulationtechnology,theuseofartificialsynthesistoproduceproteinsthathavenewstructuresandfunctionsthatarenotinnatureandareusefulforhumanlife.molecular.

Therearetwomaintypesofproteinengineering:

Thefirstistodesignfromscratch,thatis,todesignandsynthesizeproteinscompletelyaccordingtohumanwill.Denovodesignisthemostmeaningfulanddifficulttypeofoperationinproteinengineering.Atpresent,thetechnologyisstillimmature,andthesynthesizedproteinsareonlysmallshortpeptides.

Thesecondislocationmutationandlocalmodification,thatis,onlylocalmodificationisperformedonthebasisoftheexistingprotein.Thistechniqueofmodifyingthemolecularstructureofaproteinbycausingmutationsinoneorafewbasesiscalledgenetargetingmutationtechnology.

Thebasicprocedureofproteinengineeringis:firstdeterminethesequenceofaminoacidsintheprotein,determineandpredictthespatialstructureoftheprotein,establishthespatialstructuremodeloftheprotein,andthenproposetheideaof​​proteinprocessingandmodification.Genelocationmutationandothermethodsobtainthegeneofthenewproteinneeded,andthencarryoutproteinsynthesis.(Figure4-37)

Sinceproteinengineeringisdevelopedonthebasisofgeneticengineering,therearemanysimilaritieswithgeneticengineeringtechnologyintermsoftechnology,soproteinengineeringisalsocalledthesecondgenerationGeneticEngineering.

Proteinengineeringhasfoundanewwaytotransformthestructureandfunctionofproteins,anditalsoindicatesthepossibilitythathumanscandesignandcreateexcellentproteinsthatdonotexistinnature,whichhaspotentiallyhugesocialandeconomicbenefits.

Applicationformajors

Biotechnologyisanemergingmajor.Atpresent,thebiotechnologyindustryisstillinitsinfancyinChina.AlthoughmanybiotechnologycompanieshaveemergedinChina,mostofthemhavesmallscales.,Thecharacteristicsoflowtechnicalcontent,evenpartofitisjustnamedbiotechnology.Becausebiotechnologyhasthecharacteristicsoflargeinitialinvestmentandhighrisk,accordingtoChina’snationalconditions,Chinacannotformalarge-scalebio-industrygroupinashortperiodoftime.Asfarasthebiotechnologymajorisconcerned,thefutureofthemajorisgood.Forthisreason,thecurrentMajordomesticuniversitieshaveopenedbiotechnologymajorsoneafteranother,buttheydidnotconsiderthecurrentactualsituation.Asahigh-techdiscipline,biotechnologymustbecultivatedforalongtimebeforeitcanshowacertaineffectinpracticalapplications.Therefore,unlessyouplantodevoteyourselftothisindustryfromthebeginningandhavebeenstudyingformastersanddoctors,youwillhaveagreatdealExpansioncapacity.Atthesametime,becauseoftheexcessiveinvestmentinbiotechnology,thestate'sfundingislimited,andthestatefocusesonthedevelopmentofcertaincollegesanduniversities,thereisahugegapinthelevelofdomesticcollegesanduniversities,andyoumustchoosecarefully.